4.0 People in the Old Testament

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4.0 People in the Old Testament

• BIB566/THE566 Old Testament Theology

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4.0 People

• 4.1 Anthropology

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4.0.1 Preliminary Observations

• 1. Humankind are created beings and therefore are
  limited by the innate weaknesses of a created
  being and their finitude. See Jacob, Edmond,
  Theology of the Old Testament, 151
• 2. Via a special relationship with God, humankind
  has been giving a higher status than other
  created beings. See Jacob, Edmond, Theology of
  the Old Testament, 152
• 3. It is important to realize that the Old
  Testament emphasizes the unique individuality and
  solidarity of humankind. See Jacob, Edmond,
  Theology of the Old Testament, 153

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• 1. Important General Terms
• 1.1 )adam ()adamah)
• 1.1.1 Although this term may indicate an
  individual, it is generally used to indicate the
  collective idea of humankind. Gen 2.7 connects
  the term with the "dust of the ground."
• 1.2 )ish
• 1.2.1 The word can be used generally to indicate
  an individual or "husband." Some have suggested
  that the word connotes a strength of will.

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• 1.3 )enosh
• 1.3.1 It is suggested that this word may imply
  "weakness," via its Akkadian cognate, but both
  the Arabic and Ugaritic parallel implies
  "friendly" or "social."
• 1.4 geber
• 1.4.1 Strength is indicated in this word, with a
  possible contrast with women and children.

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• 2. The Being of Humankind
• 2.1 nephes 755x (throat, neck, desire, soul,
  life, person, pronouns).
• Gen 2.7 "he LORD God formed man from the dust of
  the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the
  breath of life and the man became a living being
  (hY"x vp,nltl.).
• "What does n. mean here? Certainly not soul. n.
  is designed to be seen together with the whole
  form of man, and especially with his breath
  moreover man does not have n. he is n." Wolff,
  Hans Walter, Anthropology of the Old Testament,
  10

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• "If we survey the wide context in which the n. of
  man and man as n. can be observed, we see above
  all man marked out as the individual living being
  who has neither acquired, nor can preserve, life
  by himself, but who is eager for life, spurred on
  by vital desire, as the throat (the organ for
  receiving nourishment and for breathing) and the
  neck (as the part of the body which is especially
  at risk) make clear. Although in this way n.
  shows man primarily in his need and desire, that
  includes his emotional excitability and
  vulnerability." Wolff, Hans Walter, Anthropology
  of the Old Testament, 24-5

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• 2.2 ba4sa4r 273x 104x it signifies animals
  (flesh, body, relationship, weakness)
• ". . . b. is the term for something that is
  broadly characteristic of both man (sic) and
  beast." Wolff, Hans Walter, Anthropology of the
  Old Testament, 26
• ". . . in the Old Testament b. does not only mean
  the powerlessness of the mortal creature but also
  the feebleness of his faithfulness and obedience
  to the will of God. Ethical frailty is added to
  the frailty of the creature." Wolff, Hans
  Walter, Anthropology of the Old Testament, 31

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• 2.3 ruah9 378x in Hebrew, 11x in Aramaic)
  (wind, breath, vital powers, spirit(s), feelings,
  will).
• ". . . r. is to a large extent the term for a
  natural power, the wind, this meaning being
  applicable in no less than 113 out of 389. . . .
  r. more often refers to God (136x) than to men
  (sic), animals and false gods (129x), that is to
  say about 35 of all instances, whereas n. is
  only applied to God in 3 of the cases in which
  it is used, and b. never applies to God at all. .
  . . a theo-anthropological term." Wolff, Hans
  Walter, Anthropology of the Old Testament, 32

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• As wind "What we have to remember is that r.,
  particularly as wind, as distinct from hebel or
  ba4s8a4r, generally means a mighty phenomenon
  standing at Yahweh's disposal." Wolff, Hans
  Walter, Anthropology of the Old Testament, 33
• R. as breath and r. as vital power emphasizes
  that Yahweh is the source.
• "Man as he is Empowered" "It should be
  remembered that r. stands twice as often for wind
  and for the divine vital power as for man's
  breath, feeling and will. Most of the texts that
  deal with the r. of God or man show God and

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• man in a dynamic relationship. That a man as r.
  is living, desires the good acts as authorized
  being none of this proceeds from man himself."
  Wolff, Hans Walter, Anthropology of the Old
  Testament, 39
• 2.4 le4b(a4b) 858x (heart, feelings, wish,
  reason, decision of will, the 'heart' of God)
• ". . . in contrast to the other main concepts, it
  is almost exclusively applied to man. Where b.
  refers to animal flesh in more than a third of
  all its instances, l. is only applied to animals
  five times, and four of these are in a comparison
  with the human heart and only once does it

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4.0.2 Anthropological Terms

• refer exclusively to animals (Job 41.24). And
  whereas r. is more often applied to God that to
  man, and means the wind in almost a third of its
  instances, there are only 26 mentions of the
  heart of God, 11 of the 'heart of the sea', one
  of the 'heart of heaven' and one of the 'heart'
  of the tree. So there remain 814 passages which
  deal exclusively with the human 'heart' that is
  to say, more than there are for n. as a whole
  (755 instances)." Wolff, Hans Walter,
  Anthropology of the Old Testament, 40
• "In by far the greatest number of case it is
  intellectual, rational functions that are
  ascribed to the heart i.e., precisely what we
  ascribe to the head and, more exactly, to the
  brain." Wolff, Hans Walter, Anthropology of the
  Old Testament, 46

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4.1.1 Image of God

• 1. Important text Gen 1.26-28 5.1-3 9.6.
• 2. selem besides the above passages s. occurs
  12x 10x as physical representations and 2x with
  an abstract meaning (Pss 39.76, 73.20).
  Westermann argues for the overall meaning of
  "representation."
• 3. de6mut is an abstract noun which means "to
  be like." Bird argues that it weakens or blurs
  the meaning of s.

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4.1.1 Image of God

• Gen 1.26 "Then God said, "Let us make humankind
  in our image selem, according to our likeness
  de6mut and let them have dominion over the
  fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air,
  and over the cattle, and over all the wild
  animals of the earth, and over every creeping
  thing that creeps upon the earth."
• Gen 1.27 "So God created humankind in his image
  selem, in the image selem of God he created
  them male and female he created them."

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4.1.1 Image of God

• The pattern of creation and the "let us make. . .
  ."
• In 1.27, the term ba4ra4) is used 3x.
• "dominion" is given to humanity
• N.B. Gen 1.31 "God saw everything that he had
  made, and indeed, it was very good."
• Gen 9.6 "Whoever sheds the blood of a human, by
  a human shall that person's blood be shed for in
  his own image selem God made humankind."
• A distinction is being made between animals in
  general and humankind.

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4.1.1 Image of God

• The "image of God" gives dignity and worth to
  humanity.
• Gen 5.1-3 "When God created humankind, he made
  them in the likeness de6mut of God. Male and
  female he created them, and he blessed them and
  named them "Humankind" when they were created.
  When Adam had lived one hundred thirty years, he
  became the father of a son in his likeness
  de6mut, according to his image selem, and
  named him Seth."

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4.1.1 Image of God

• "This suggests that the way in which a son
  resembles his father is in some sense analogous
  to the way in which the human is like God. Since
  this passage has made the point that it is both
  male and female who are in the image of God, it
  seems clear that the similarity, while not
  excluding the physical in the broadest sense,
  focuses on capacities such as personality,
  self-determination, and rational thought. It is
  probable that it is the whole person who is in
  the image of God rather than some specific aspect
  of that person to the exclusion of others, and
  this focus on the human being as a whole being is
  consistent with the way humanity is viewed
  throughout the Hebrew Bible." Curtis, Edward,
  Image of God, ABD

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4.1.1 Image of God

• 4. Edward Curtis on the "Image of God"
• "Images were used in both Mesopotamia and Egypt,
  and the literature of those countries provides a
  basis for determining how those people understood
  images. Egyptian texts make it clear that images
  were not meant to depict what a god looked like,
  but represented attempts to describe certain
  qualities or attributes of the deity. The primary
  purpose of the image, though, was not to describe
  the god rather, the image was one of the primary
  places where the god manifested himself. The
  presence of the deity in the statue was magically
  effected through a ceremony called the Opening
  of the Mouth, and perhaps there are reflections
  of this in the description of humanitys creation
  in Genesis 2, where God forms a figure of the man
  out of dust from the ground and then animates
  that figure by breathing life into it. The
  significance of the image did not lie in the way
  it described

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4.1.1 Image of God

• or depicted the god (though that was not totally
  unimportant) rather, it lay in the fact that the
  statue was a place where the deity was present
  and manifested himself. Thus, the presence of the
  god and the blessing that accompanied that
  presence were effected through the image. It was
  the function of the image rather than its form
  that constituted its significance." ABD
• " In both Egypt and Mesopotamia, people were
  sometimes referred to as images of god, and while
  there are occasional exceptions, it was usually
  the king who was referred to in this way. The
  focus for this seems to be Egypt, where,
  beginning with the New Kingdom, there are
  numerous examples of the king described as the
  image of a particular god in contrast to this,
  only five examples are known from Mesopotamia
  (four of which date to the neo-Assyrian period).
  The pharaoh was described in these terms because
  he was believed to be the earthly

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4.1.1 Image of God

• manifestation of the deity, and thus he
  functioned on earth exactly as the image
  functioned in the temple. In Mesopotamia, where
  the idea of the deified king made a brief
  appearance in the Ur III period but died out
  thereafter, there was little basis for referring
  to the king in such a way. There are indications
  in Gen 12628 that the image of God
  terminology perhaps had its origins in the royal
  ideology of the ancient Near East. The idea of
  dominion and the idea of subduing are most
  appropriate in the context of kingship. Psalm 8
  uses similar royal terminology in its description
  of humanitys place in the created order, though
  it does not use the term image of God. ABD
• " It seems likely that the image of God idea was
  introduced into Israel through her contacts with
  Egypt, and the idea was emptied of content that
  was incompatible with Israelite theology and used
  to express the apparently uniquely

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4.1.1 Image of God

• Israelite idea that all persons, not just the
  king, occupy a preeminent place in the created
  order. . . . The image of God terminology clearly
  affirms the preeminent position of humanity in
  the created order and declares the dignity and
  worth of man and woman as the special creations
  of God. The ANE background that appears to stand
  behind the biblical idea provides an appropriate
  base for such a declaration about humankind."
  ABD

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4.1.2 Male Female

• 1. Gen 1.27 "So God created humankind in his
  image, in the image of God he created them male
  and female he created them."
• 2. Marriage in the Old Testament
• 2.1 No known word for "marriage."
• 2.2 Gen 2.24 "Therefore a man leaves his father
  and his mother and clings to his wife, and they
  become one flesh."
• 2.3 "The ideal marraige (sic) in OT society was a
  monogamous one, one man for one woman, one woman
  for one man. The creation narrative (Gen 224)
  makes this point with its call to the man to
  forsake his mother and father and cleave unto his

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4.1.2 Male Female

• wife (not wives). In fact, there is only one
  illustration of the violation of that pattern in
  primeval history, and that is Lamech (Gen 423).
  A number of laws have been cited (IDB 3 281) as
  support for monogamous marriage Exod 2017
  215 Lev 188, 11, 14, 15, 16, 20 2010 2113
  Num 512 Deut 521 2222. Wisdom Literature
  also provides copious texts in support of
  monogamy Prov 124 1822 1913 219 Eccl
  99 Job 311, 912 Sir 2614." ABD
• 2.4 The above statements are based on the use of
  the singular )issa, but this is questioned.
  See Exod 20.17 Deut 5.21, etc.

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4.1.2 Male Female

• 2.5 "Indeed, the OT is replete with illustrations
  of polygamous marriages. To be more precise, it
  tells of instances of polygyny (one husband, more
  than one wife), but no instance of polyandry (one
  wife, more than one husband). . . . It is clear
  that in most of the above-cited instances
  polygyny was a major contributor to problems in
  the household. . . . " ABD
• 3. Relationship of Love
• 3.1 "The love relationship between man and woman
  plays by no means an unimportant role even in the
  legal texts . . . ." Wolff, 169

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4.1.2 Male Female

• 3.2 Prov 5.18-20 31.10-31
• 3.3 Song of Songs
• 4. The Disorders of Love
• 4.1 The problem of possible cult prostitution in
  Hosea (4.13f. 2.2-13)
• 4.2 "Loose woman" Prov 5.2-5 7.4-27
• 4.3 Lev 18ff.
• 4.4 Homosexuality Lev 18.22 Bestiality Lev
  18.23 Cross dressing Deut 22.5
• 4.5 ". . . the Old Testament is perfectly frank
  about the varied disorders and threats to man in
  his status as created being, and to the love
  relationship founded on that status. It describes
  these

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4.1.2 Male Female

• disturbances as clearly as it describes the
  rapture of the whole union of love. It is always
  a disturbance in the relationship to God which
  shows itself in different ways in the
  disturbances within the common life of man and
  woman. In the exclusiveness of the love that is
  required of them, nothing less is at stake than
  the wholeness of the love conferred on them at
  their creation." Wolff, 176

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 1. Introduction
• 1.1 Occurs over 250x
• 1.2 Modern studies begins with that of Glueck
• Glueck (1927 3) summarized the meaning of h9esed
  in its secular usage as conduct in accord with a
  mutual relationship of rights and duties he
  also emphasized the mutual or reciprocal and the
  obligatory character of the term in its religious
  usage for persons in relation to each other and
  to God (Glueck 1927 34). Glueck did view Gods
  h9esed as a gift, rather than as a right, yet the
  mutuality of the relationship between God and the
  recipient of h9esed remained central to his

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4.1.3 H9esed

• analysis (1927 52). More recent scholarship has
  questioned and largely abandoned Gluecks
  emphasis on rights and duties as quasi-legal or
  traditional-cultural categories within which the
  term should be interpreted, and has greatly
  modified his understanding of mutuality by
  deemphasizing reciprocity. Nonetheless, Gluecks
  emphasis on the centrality of a relationship
  between the parties within which h9esed is
  offered and received remains a basic and lasting
  contribution." Sakenfeld, ABD

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 1.3 Three Important Factors
• 1.3.1 First, h9esed is not associated with
  inanimate objects or concepts (contrast love
  lthb of silver or righteousness) it always
  involves persons.
• 1.3.2 Second, h9esed is requested of or done for
  another with whom one is already in relationship
  the term does not appear in contexts where no
  relationship between the parties has been
  established.
• 1.3.3 Third, h9esed in its most basic form is a
  specific action, but from a series of such
  actions the term may also be abstracted to refer
  to an attitude that is given concrete shape in
  such actions.

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 2. Secular Usage
• 2.1 h9esed between individuals
• 2.1.1 h9esed in intimately personal
  relationships, usually familial (Gen 20.13
  24.49 47.29 Ruth 3.10 2 Sam 3.8 16.17)
• First, the help of another is essential the
  person in need cannot perform the action.
• Second, help itself is essential the needy
  persons situation will turn drastically for the
  worse if help is not received.
• Third, the circumstances dictate that one person
  is uniquely able to provide the needed
  assistance there is no ready alternative if help
  is not forthcoming from this source.

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4.1.3 H9esed

• Fourth, the person in need has no control over
  the decision of the person who is in a position
  to help, and there are no legal sanctions for
  failure to provide help often no one else will
  even know of a negative decision. The potential
  helper must make a free moral decision, based
  essentially on commitment to the needy person
  within the relationship. While self-interest
  might occasionally encourage a positive response,
  the term h9esed focuses the rationale for action
  on commitment to the other, not on advantage to
  the actor.

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 2.1.2 h9esed in Secondary, Non-intimate
  Relationships (Gen 40.14 1 Kgs 20.31 Jos
  2.12-14 Gen 21.23 2 Sam 10.1-2)
• In these narratives the person requesting h9esed
  is careful to show that the relationship between
  the parties is in good repair, sometimes by
  pointing to an act of h9esed done by the
  suppliant on a prior occasion when the relative
  circumstances of need of the parties were
  reversed. This overt emphasis on the quality of
  the relationship stands in contrast to the
  narratives featuring intimate personal ties,
  where requests for h9esed are simply made and no
  reason for compliance is proposed the requests
  in such cases are based on the very nature of the
  relationship, which need not be mentioned.

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4.1.3 H9esed

• In the secondary relationships there is more
  frequently a potential for self-interest in an
  actors willingness to offer h9esed(although the
  focus remains on commitment to the other) and in
  some of the examples the strength or even
  existence of a prior relationship between the
  parties has been disputed.
• The central features of critical situational
  need, unique opportunity to assist, and freedom
  of decision are common to h9esed in both intimate
  and secondary relationships.

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 3. Theological Usage God's h9esed
• 3.1 "Israel understood God to be committed to the
  community in covenant relationship as the One who
  provided for all needs, yet One also always free
  and uncoercible. The Hebrew term h9esed compactly
  incorporates all three of these dimensions
  (commitment, provision for need, freedom) in a
  single word. This shorthand theological claim is
  given various emphases, however, in different
  streams of OT literature."
• 3.2 "Key aspects of the concrete manifestations
  of Gods h9esed(ranging from maintaining the
  created order to provision of descendants,
  sustenance, land, leadership, and especially
  forgiveness) . . . ."

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 3.3 "These are reinforced and supplemented by
  attention to the many references to divine h9esed
  in the psalter (over 70 times scattered through
  over 45 psalms). Most frequently associated with
  h9esed is a plea for deliverance from enemies
  (e.g., Ps 177 14312) or thanksgiving for such
  deliverance (e.g., Ps 1382)."
• 3.4 "For individuals as much as for the community
  corporately, Gods forgiveness as an act of
  h\esed that continues the divine-human
  relationship is foundational to life itself and
  undergirds all other manifestations of h9esed."

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4.1.3 H9esed

• 4. Theological Usage Human h9esed to God and
  Neighbor.
• 4.1 Micah 6.8 "He has told you, O mortal, what
  is good and what does the LORD require of you
  but to do justice, and to love kindness (h9esed),
  and to walk humbly with your God?"
• 4.2 Hosea 221 Eng219 41 64, 6 1012
  127
• "In Hosea h9esed is used as a summary term for
  Israels carrying through on covenant commitment
  both to exclusive worship of the LORD and to
  communal justice that is, h\esed represents the
  entire decalogue in a single word. By using
  h9esed for what Israel does for God, Hosea is
  able to emphasize that observance of the

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4.1.3 H9esed

• decalogue is not just something that God
  commands, but is more importantly what God
  desires or asks from Israel. Even though God is
  powerful and Israel dependent, h9esed is
  nevertheless an attitude and action that Israel
  is somehow free to offer or to withhold. Divine
  judgment might coerce such behavior, but
  judgment by its nature cannot produce the free
  and willing behavior and commitment that is
  essential to h9esed. Thus in speaking of
  Israels h9esed to God, Hosea is able to convey
  both the freedom of Israel within the covenant
  relationship and also the deep and urgent desire
  of God for Israels free response. Sakenfeld,
  Katharine, Faithfulness in Action Loyality in
  Biblical Persective, 1985 Sakenfeld, Love in
  the O.T., Anchor Bible Dictionary

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4.1.4 Sin

• 1. Introduction
• Although it is not difficult to find passages
  that deal with sin in the Old Testament, it is
  nevertheless difficult to find passages that
  define sin. Some Old Testament Theologians have
  attempted to construct their OT Theologies with
  sin and the forgiveness of sins as the center.
• 2. Terms that are used
• 2.1 "Like Hittite, Sumerian, and Akkadian
  literature, Israelite literature draws upon a
  rich thesaurus for terminology relating to sin.
  One may count over fifty words for sin in
  biblical Hebrew, if specific as well as generic
  terms are isolated. The plethora of Hebrew terms
  and their ubiquitous presence in

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4.1.4 Sin

• the Hebrew Bible testify to the fact that sin
  was a dominate concern of the Israelite
  theologians. Indeed, their highlighting of human
  failure, deficiency, or offense in the cultic,
  ethical, and moral spheres constitutes a central
  theme of OT theology." Cover, "Sin, Sinners
  (OT)," ABD
• 2.2 aj'x' (h9a4tta4)) Trespass go astray miss
  the mark. (595x) ". . . denotes the negative
  result, or failure, of an action or behavior."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.3 vP' (pa4s6a() to rebel, transgression -
  active sense as a noun, rebellion or revolt.
  (135x) ". . . points to the nature of an act
  itself within social and intenational relations
  (as in Amos 1-2). It is therefore, also a legal
  word for crime." (Knierim, 425)

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4.1.4 Sin

• 2.4 hw"' ((awa) ("to become/be guilty")
  points to the course of negative conditions from
  the beginning of an action to its final result."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.5 !wlta' ()a4wen) to distort iniquity i.e.,
  motion verb bend, veer, go aside form the right
  way usually with the agents awareness of the
  culpability of his/her action. (229x)
• 2.6 lm' (ma4(al) un-dutifully,
  unfaithfulness deceit.
• 2.7 hgv' (s6a4gah) error unintentional
  transgression.

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4.1.4 Sin

• 2.8 smx' (ha4mas8) ". . . ("to act violently")
  points to the violent nature of an act."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.9 va' ()a4sam) ". . . ("to become subject to
  the obligation of guilt") points to the
  consequences of a state of guilt." (Knierim, 426)
• 2.10 lbn" (na4bal) ". . . ("to be foolish" or
  "to act foolishly") refers to an act or behavior
  with deadly consequences because it rips the
  fabric of communal relations to pieces,
  particularly in the realm of sexual mores (e.g.,
  Genesis 34 Judges 19-20 2 Sam 13), but also in
  other respects where foolishness is the opposite
  of wisdom (Proverbs). The meaning of this word
  reaches much deeper than the

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4.1.4 Sin

• modern meaning of the same word. Its depth
  reflects taboo-based values. The same can be said
  for words such as hb'eAT ("abomination") or
  hM'zI ("shame"). The Old Testament, and not only
  Far Eastern cultures, speaks of shame! Guilt and
  shame are not mutually exclusive aspects in the
  Old Testament. Nor is shame only a psychological
  condition in the Old Testament ("to be ashamed").
  It is also an objective ("shameful") condition.
  These words point especially to the violated
  taboos of the cultic realm. amej' ("to be/become
  unclean") has a similar function."

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4.1.4 Sin

• 2.11 r (ra() ". . . ("bad," "evil") is the
  opposite of bAj ("good"). r points to the most
  encompassing meaning of sin. Again, the weight of
  what is considered bad or evil corresponds to the
  English word "evil" much more than the English
  word "bad." (Knierim, 426)
• "The root rs6( signifies criminal wrongdoing or
  wickedness the substantival adjective ra4s6a4(
  is a common word used collectively for the
  wicked. Ethical and moral badness are designated
  by the root r(( various forms of the root
  indicate 'evil, distress, injury, misery,
  calamity.'" (Cover, ABD)

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4.1.4 Sin

• 3. Sin in the Primeval History Westermann,
  Elements of Old Testament Theology, 118-125
• 3.1 Relationship with God Gen 3
• 3.2 Relationship with Community Gen 4
  (Fratricide)
• 3.3 Relationship with Parents Gen 920-27
• 3.4 Collective Sin Gen 6.1-4 11.1-9
• Characteristics of Primeval Sin
• 1. Sinful nature of humankind presupposed.
• 2. Sin verses Crime religion and politics are
  not divided in OT
• 3. Gen 8.21 Gods relationship with people in
  spite of their inclination to evil.

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4.1.4 Sin

• 4. Sin in the History of God's People
• 4.1 Exod 32-34
• 4.2 Num 13-14
• 4.3 2 Sam 11-12
• 5. Summary of Sin in the Old Testament
• 5.1 Sin is that which separates humankind from
  God.
• 5.2 Three Basic Structures
• 5.2.1 Moral the breaking of laws commandments.
• 5.2.2 That which depicts the weakness, i.e.,
  flesh.
• 5.2.3 Relational separation from God.

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4.1.5 Forgiveness

• 1. ". . . the Old Testament not only is familiar
  with sin and guilt but also can tell about
  repentance, forgiveness and atonement, and even
  forgiveness without the appearance of a
  corresponding terminology." Preuss, Horst
  Dietrich, Old Testament Theology, Volume 2, 178
• 2. Terms
• 2.1 na4s8a4) "to bear, take away" when used with
  (a4won h9t)
• Substitution idea Exod 28.38 Num 14.33 Ezek
  4.4-6 Isa 53.6

47
4.1.5 Forgiveness

• 2.2 sa4lah (46x) "forgive/forgiveness"
• "The term occurs neither in secular nor in
  expressing forgiveness between human beings."
  Preuss, Horst Dietrich, Old Testament Theology,
  Volume 2, 179
• "The promise of forgiveness primarily has its
  place in prophetic (conditional as well as
  unconditional) promises of salvation to Israel /
  Judah / Jerusalem (Jer 5.1 31.34 33.8 36.3
  50.20)." Preuss, Horst Dietrich, Old Testament
  Theology, Volume 2, 179

48
4.1.5 Forgiveness

• 3. Redeem, Redeemer Redemption
• 3.1 A Legal Conceptualization of God's Saving
  Action
• The legal process of redemption provides the
  biblical writers with one of their basic images
  for describing Gods saving activity toward
  man.. Dentan, IDB, IV, 21
• The idea common to these three forms of
  redemption is that of substitution man gives
  something in order to receive another thing in
  its place when sin is concerned, man exchanges
  sin for a new life. Jacob, Theology of the Old
  Testament, 294

49
4.1.5 Forgiveness

• 3.2 Terms
• 3.2.1 hdp (padah)

50
4.1.4 Sin

• 1. Introduction
• Although it is not difficult to find passages
  that deal with sin in the Old Testament, it is
  nevertheless difficult to find passages that
  define sin. Some Old Testament Theologians have
  attempted to construct their OT Theologies with
  sin and the forgiveness of sins as the center.
• 2. Terms that are used
• 2.1 "Like Hittite, Sumerian, and Akkadian
  literature, Israelite literature draws upon a
  rich thesaurus for terminology relating to sin.
  One may count over fifty words for sin in
  biblical Hebrew, if specific as well as generic
  terms are isolated. The plethora of Hebrew terms
  and their ubiquitous presence in

51
4.1.4 Sin

• the Hebrew Bible testify to the fact that sin
  was a dominate concern of the Israelite
  theologians. Indeed, their highlighting of human
  failure, deficiency, or offense in the cultic,
  ethical, and moral spheres constitutes a central
  theme of OT theology." Cover, "Sin, Sinners
  (OT)," ABD
• 2.2 aj'x' (h9a4tta4)) Trespass go astray miss
  the mark. (595x) ". . . denotes the negative
  result, or failure, of an action or behavior."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.3 vP' (pa4s6a() to rebel, transgression -
  active sense as a noun, rebellion or revolt.
  (135x) ". . . points to the nature of an act
  itself within social and intenational relations
  (as in Amos 1-2). It is therefore, also a legal
  word for crime." (Knierim, 425)

52
4.1.4 Sin

• 2.4 hw"' ((awa) ("to become/be guilty")
  points to the course of negative conditions from
  the beginning of an action to its final result."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.5 !wlta' ()a4wen) to distort iniquity i.e.,
  motion verb bend, veer, go aside form the right
  way usually with the agents awareness of the
  culpability of his/her action. (229x)
• 2.6 lm' (ma4(al) un-dutifully,
  unfaithfulness deceit.
• 2.7 hgv' (s6a4gah) error unintentional
  transgression.

53
4.1.4 Sin

• 2.8 smx' (ha4mas8) ". . . ("to act violently")
  points to the violent nature of an act."
  (Knierim, 425)
• 2.9 va' ()a4sam) ". . . ("to become subject to
  the obligation of guilt") points to the
  consequences of a state of guilt." (Knierim, 426)
• 2.10 lbn" (na4bal) ". . . ("to be foolish" or
  "to act foolishly") refers to an act or behavior
  with deadly consequences because it rips the
  fabric of communal relations to pieces,
  particularly in the realm of sexual mores (e.g.,
  Genesis 34 Judges 19-20 2 Sam 13), but also in
  other respects where foolishness is the opposite
  of wisdom (Proverbs). The meaning of this word
  reaches much deeper than the

54
4.1.4 Sin

• modern meaning of the same word. Its depth
  reflects taboo-based values. The same can be said
  for words such as hb'eAT ("abomination") or
  hM'zI ("shame"). The Old Testament, and not only
  Far Eastern cultures, speaks of shame! Guilt and
  shame are not mutually exclusive aspects in the
  Old Testament. Nor is shame only a psychological
  condition in the Old Testament ("to be ashamed").
  It is also an objective ("shameful") condition.
  These words point especially to the violated
  taboos of the cultic realm. amej' ("to be/become
  unclean") has a similar function."

55
4.1.4 Sin

• 2.11 r (ra() ". . . ("bad," "evil") is the
  opposite of bAj ("good"). r points to the most
  encompassing meaning of sin. Again, the weight of
  what is considered bad or evil corresponds to the
  English word "evil" much more than the English
  word "bad." (Knierim, 426)
• "The root rs6( signifies criminal wrongdoing or
  wickedness the substantival adjective ra4s6a4(
  is a common word used collectively for the
  wicked. Ethical and moral badness are designated
  by the root r(( various forms of the root
  indicate 'evil, distress, injury, misery,
  calamity.'" (Cover, ABD)

56
4.1.4 Sin

• 3. Sin in the Primeval History Westermann,
  Elements of Old Testament Theology, 118-125
• 3.1 Relationship with God Gen 3
• 3.2 Relationship with Community Gen 4
  (Fratricide)
• 3.3 Relationship with Parents Gen 920-27
• 3.4 Collective Sin Gen 6.1-4 11.1-9
• Characteristics of Primeval Sin
• 1. Sinful nature of humankind presupposed.
• 2. Sin verses Crime religion and politics are
  not divided in OT
• 3. Gen 8.21 Gods relationship with people in
  spite of their inclination to evil.

57
4.1.4 Sin

• 4. Sin in the History of God's People
• 4.1 Exod 32-34
• 4.2 Num 13-14
• 4.3 2 Sam 11-12
• 5. Summary of Sin in the Old Testament
• 5.1 Sin is that which separates humankind from
  God.
• 5.2 Three Basic Structures
• 5.2.1 Moral the breaking of laws commandments.
• 5.2.2 That which depicts the weakness, i.e.,
  flesh.
• 5.2.3 Relational separation from God.

58
4.2 Israel

• 4.2.0 Election in the Old Testament
• 4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
  Community Identity
• 4.2.2 Suzerainty Treaty as Metaphor
• 4.2.3 Father / Son Metaphor
• 4.2.4 Husband / Wife Metaphor

59
4.2.0 Election in the Old Testament

• "In looking over the entire Old Testament, what
  is central to the election of the nation are the
  exodus from Egypt and the choosing of the early
  ancestors. These are the two components of
  election to which later developing understandings
  return and on which expanding "election
  traditions" are developed." Preuss, OTT, I, 35
• "When seeking the motives of election, one
  discovers that the Old Testament continues to be
  remarkably reserved (cf. perhaps only Deuteronomy
  7 and 9.1-6). Why YHWH called Abraham is not
  stated. Israel was not better than other nations,
  and YHWH apparently chooses

60
4.2.0 Election in the Old Testament

• differently than human beings do (e.g., Lot
  Genesis 13). Because YHWH loved his people and
  wished to keep the oath he had given to the
  ancestors, he chose his people (Deut 7.8). The
  reasons for this election, however, are found
  only in YHWH himself. Israel can only testify in
  thankfulness to its election. YHWH "found" his
  people like grapes in the wilderness (Hos 9.10).
  The Old Testament cannot and does not desire to
  say more than this." Preuss, OTT, I, 37-8
• "The Hebrew word bh9r is the key word for our
  concept "YHWH chose out" (bh9r) this one people
  from all the peoples and "set it apart" (qdws)
  as his

61
4.2.0 Election in the Old Testament

• own, bestowing upon it a "unique value" (sglh)."
  Patrick, "Election (Old Testament)," ABD

62
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 1. The Exodus Event
• The Exodus as recorded in Exod 13.17-14.31.
• Celebrated in Exod 15.1-21
• Preamble to the Decalogue Exod 20.2 Deut 5.6
• Hos 11.1-4 12.9 13.4 "Israel knew its God Yhwh
  as "Yhwh from the land of Egypt"
• Psalm 114

63
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 2. Definition of Israel
• The term "Israel" occurs 2,514x
• "El/God is reliable/upright, trustworthy" if
  the verb is ya4sar
• "El/God rules" if the verb is s8a4rar
• "El/God struggles/fights if the verb is s8a4ra

64
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 3. People Important Terms
• "People" goy "A goy exists when 'a human
  group comes together on the basis of lineage,
  language, land, worship, law, and military
  affairs, and is separated from entities standing
  on the outside.' External factors in the
  formation and continuing characterization of a
  'people' are primary consideration in their
  designation as a goy." Preuss, OTT, I, 50
• "People" (am ". . . Presents an understanding
  of a human group in terms that are more internal
  than external. This word perhaps originally
  designated

65
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• the father's brother and the, later, referred to
  the male relatives and ancestors within the
  extended family. The term then came to refer to a
  league of men. This included all males who were
  able to bear arms, the full citizens of the legal
  and cultic community . . . . Later was expanded
  to include women and children." Preuss, OTT, I,
  50-51
• Covenant formula (am yahweh Hos 1.9 2.25.
• 4. Assembly Congregation
• Assembly qa4ha4l "Israel is called Yahweh's
  qa4ha4l primarily in Deuteronomy (Deut 5.22
  9.10 10.4 23.2-9 31.30). The term qa4ha4l
  generally means "assembly" or "congregation."
  However, in certain

66
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• OT contexts that have theological relevance, the
  term primarily designated the "community" of Yhwh
  into which one could or could not enter."
  Preuss, OTT, I, 54
• Congregation (e4da ". . . denotes . . . An
  attribute that describes the character of the
  sons of Israel, while qa4ha4l continues to keep
  its technical meaning of a present assembly."
  Preuss, OTT, I, 55
• "The terms qa4ha4l and (e4da point . . . to the
  interaction and association of people and
  community in the OT's understanding of Israel."
  Preuss, OTT, I, 55

67
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 5. The Development of a Concept of Community
• 5.1 Tribal Period
• 5.1.1 Paternal family units that were then
  included in a larger family
• 5.1.2 Patriarchal structure with women defined as
  male property rights
• 5.1.3 Contra-Urban Monarchy Pattern, therefore
  small time farmers pastoral life styles.
• 5.1.4 Yahwehistic Theocracy
• 5.1.5 Syncretistic with Baalism

68
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 5.2 Monarchy
• 5.2.1 Special, divine status to the king
• 5.2.2 Hierarchical structure in society
• 5.2.3 Centralization of Cult
• 5.3 Prophetic Community
• 5.3.1 King was not considered above the moral
  standards, I.e., the Law.
• 5.3.2 All members of the community were equal and
  the leadership of the nation was to provide
  protect the poor and the weak.

69
4.2.1 The Exodus Event Israel's Exodus
Community Identity

• 5.3.3 Social order was not natural via myths, but
  based on God's deliverance from slavery.
• 5.3.4 Cult was not beyond time in a heavenly
  order, but was subservient to mandates of
  compassion and justice.
• 5.4 Exile
• 5.4.1 Ezekiel 40-48
• 5.5 Second Temple Era
• 5.5.1 No King, Priest Prophets dominate with
  the Priest winning out in the end.

70
4.2.2 Suzerainty Treaty as Metaphor

• 1. ANE treaty forms have significantly impacted
  Israel's understanding of their unique
  relationship with Yhweh.
• 2. General Characteristics of the ANE Treaty
  Form
• 2.1 Two basic types International Domestic.
  The International is divided into "Parity" and
  "Suzerain-Vassal" types.
• 2.2 These treaties were guaranteed by the gods
  with oath statements and possible rituals
• 2.3 Those that are on parity status use such
  terms as "brother," "peace," "love," while
  suzerain-vassal types used "father/son,"
  "lord/servant."

71
4.2.2 Suzerainty Treaty as Metaphor

• 2.4 Keeping Breaking a Treaty The language
  that is used include "guarding," "remembering,"
  versus "breaking," "transgressing," "forgetting,"
  "erasing," "sinning against," etc.

72
4.2.2 Suzerainty Treaty as Metaphor

• 3. The Form in General
• PREAMBLE (These are the words...). Deut 1.1-5
  These are the words which Moses addressed to all
  Israel...
• HISTORICAL PROLOGUE (Baltzer antecedent
  history, i.e., events leading to and forming the
  basis of the treaty). Deut 1.6-4.49.
• GENERAL STIPULATIONS (Baltzer statement of
  substance concerning the future relationship,
  which (1) is intimately related to the antecedent
  history, and (2) summarizes the purpose of the
  specific stipulations). Deut 5-11.

73
4.2.2 Suzerainty Treaty as Metaphor

• SPECIFIC STIPULATIONS. Deut 12-26.
• DIVINE WITNESSES various deities are called to
  witness the treaty. See Deut 30.19 31.19
  32.1-43. Possibly including provisions for the
  continuity of covenant and a successor for Moses.
• BLESSINGS AND CURSES relating respectively to
  the maintenance or breach of the covenant. Deut
  27-28. Possibly including all of 27-30 as curses
  and blessings, with exhortation.

74
4.2.3 Father / Son Metaphor

• Isaiah 1.2-3
• Cosmic Law Suit
• Mic 6.1-2 Ps 50.4 Deut 4.26 32.
• As a Covenant Lawsuit i) Witnesses are summoned
  (1.2a) ii) The chief litigant is announced
  (1.2b) iii) His charges are given in brief
  (1.2c-3) iv) The accused is named (1.3c).
• Rebellious Son Deut 21.18-21
• Hosea 11.1-4

75
4.2.4 Husband / Wife Metaphor

• Hosea 1-3
• Hoseas Call and His Family (1.2-2.3 1.1-11)
• God and the Wife (2.4-25 2.1-23)
• Restoration (3.1-5)
• Ezekiel 16.1-63
• Ezekiel 23.1-49 Oholah Oholibah

76
4.3 Nations

• 4.3.1 Oracles Against the Nations
• 4.3.2 Universal Rule of God Missions

77
4.3.1 Oracles Against the Nations

• 4.3 Nations

78
1. Major collections of OAN

• Isaiah 13-23
• Jer 46-51
• Ezek 25-32
• Amos 1-2

79
2. War Oracles and their Transformation

• 1. Early Period
• 1.1 Pre-monarchical Period Num 22-24, especially
  24.15-24 (Ex 17.16 Num 10.35-36 Josh 10.12-13
  Jud 1.1-2 Jud 4-5 18.5-6 20.18, 23, 26-28)
• 1.2 9th Century Israel 1 Kgs 20.13-15, 28 2 Kgs
  3.16-19
• 2. Amos 1-2 5.18-20

80
3. Isaiah, Nahum, Zephaniah

• 1. Isaiah 13-23 (esp. 7.7-9 10.27c-34 14.28-32
  17.1-6)
• 2. Zeph 2.1-15
• 3. Obadiah 1b-6a
• 4. Nahum (esp. 1.2-8 2.2 2.14-34)

81
4. Habakkuk and Jeremiah

• Jeremiah 46-51 Christensen's divisions
• 1. Jeremianic
• 1.1 1st Against Egypt 46.2-12
• 1.2 2nd Against Egypt 46.13-24
• 1.3 Philistia 47.1-7
• 1.4 Qedar 49.28-33
• 1.5 Elam 49.34-39

82
4. Habakkuk and Jeremiah

• 2. Archaic OAN
• 2.1 Moab 48.1-44
• 2.2 Ammon 49.1-6
• 2.3 Edom 49.7-22
• 2.4 Aram 49.23-27
• 3. Early Apocalyptic
• 3.1 1st Against Babylon 50.1-46
• 3.2 2nd Against Babylon 51.1-40

83
5. Ezekiel, Zechariah and Joel

• 1. Ezekiel 25-32 38-39
• 2. Zechariah 9.1-17
• 3. Joel 4.9-17

84
6. Psalms

• 1. War Oracles used 12 58? 60 74 79 80 83
  85 90 94.1-11 123 126 137
• 2. Ps 83.2-19
• 3. Ps 60.3-14 (cf. 108.6-13)

85
7. Purpose of the Isaianic OAN

• 1. "Delitzsch is undoubtedly correct when he sees
  these chapters as following naturally upon the
  vision of Immanuel as ruler of the kingdoms.
  Young is also correct when he observes that the
  thought is generally an expansion of 10.5-34 with
  its attack upon the pride of Assyria. But perhaps
  Erlandsson gives the most perceptive key when he
  comments that these oracles are not so much an
  announcement of doom upon the nations as they are
  an announcement of salvation to Israel if she
  would trust her Lord." Oswalt, Ibid., 298

86
8. Purpose of the Isaianic OAN

• 2. "Furthermore, the section continues the
  treatment of pride which appears in the first
  chapters of the book. It is the arrogance of the
  nations that will finally bring them down (13.11,
  19 14.11 16.6 23.9). Because they have exalted
  themselves in the face of God, creating gods in
  their image (2.6-22 17.7-11), they will not
  endure. Permanence is only an expression of a
  relationship with the one permanent Being in the
  universe." Oswalt, Ibid., 299

87
Hamborg, G. R., Reasons for Judgement in the
Oracles Against the Nations of the Prophet
Isaiah, VT XXXI, 2 (1981)

• G. Purpose of the Isaianic OAN

88
Corrections

• 1. First, it is clear that the OAN form an
  integral part of Isaiahs message of judgement on
  Israel. Any treatment of the OAN which studies
  them in isolation is therefore deficient.
• 2. Secondly, and following on from this, any
  presentation of the theology of the prophet
  Isaiah which fails to make reference to his OAN
  is equally deficient.
• 3. Thirdly, it is manifestly incorrect to suggest
  that Isaiahs OAN functions as a form of
  salvation prophecy for Israel. Nothing could be
  further from the truth.

89
Corrections

• 4. Fourthly, the study contributes to our
  understanding of Isaiahs view of history, in
  which Yahweh does indeed control the destinies of
  all the nations, but for the furtherance of his
  aims with regard to Israel rather than for any
  other reasons.
• 5. Fifthly, in the relatively few instances where
  Isaiah does give a reason for judgement against a
  foreign nation, it is often the sin of pride or
  hybris. This concept of the hybris of nations is
  one which should be included in a study of
  prophetic theology. It is also a concept which
  could be of theological significance for our own
  day.

90
Reasons for Judgment

• 1. In a number of instances (19.1-15 18.1-6
  14.28-32 15-16) Isaiah announces judgement on a
  foreign nation because of Judahs possible
  reliance on or alliance with the nation, and not
  for any sin of the nation itself. In addition he
  was doubtless a sufficiently realistic person to
  know that Assyrian punishment on Israel would
  inevitably affect Israels neighbours. There is
  thus a sense in which for Isaiah, the nations
  were no more than pawns in the game Yahwehs
  dealings with Israel.It could perhaps be noted at
  this point that, were any of the oracles against
  Babylon to turn out to be Isaianic, they would
  fit in with the pattern already discovered, since
  there clearly were times in Isaiahs career when
  Judah and Babylon were in alliance (see Isa
  39.1-8)

91
Reasons for Judgment

• 2. The main sin of the nations is pride or
  hybris. In 15-16 Isaiah may be using an older
  poem which accuses Moab of pride. Isaiah himself
  accuses Tyre of pride (23.1-12, especially 23.9),
  and in this instance it refers particularly to
  Tyres wealth. Assyria is accused of hybris
  (38.22-29 10.5-19)
• 3. Action against Israel is hinted at as a reason
  for judgement in 14.25b, with reference to the
  Assyrians and action against Judah in 17.1-6,
  9-11 with reference to the Syro-Ephraimite
  alliance of 734.

92
Reasons for Judgment

• 4. It is noteworthy that even if one accepts only
  a more limited selection of these OAN as deriving
  from Isaiah, such as those accepted by Fohrer p.
  402 (10.5-15 14.24-27 14.28-32 17.1-6 18 20)
  still these three types of reason for judgement
  all appear.

93
4.3.2 Universal Rule of God Missions

• 4.3 Nations

94
4.3.2.1 The Redaction of the book of the Twelve
95
Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• A. First Edition
• 1. Hosea, Amos, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah and
  Obadiah.
• 2. "The cultural setting for such a production
  would have been the preaching and liturgical
  prayers as developed in the assemblies of the
  Jews in exile. The mood in such gatherings varied
  from resigned acceptance and regret in the early
  years to hope and determination, even optimism,
  as time went by." Collins, The Mantle of Elijah
  The Redaction Criticism of the Prophetical Books,
  62
• 3. Dated between 587-538 BCE

96
Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• B. Second Edition
• 1. Haggai, Zechariah (1-8) Zephaniah expansion
  (3.9-20), Jonah and possibly Joel
• 2. "It was especially aimed at maintaining
  enthusiasm for the great undertaking, which was
  apparently in danger of being bogged down in
  frustration and apathy. The setting for these
  developments was presumably that of the prayers
  and reflections associated with religious
  gatherings, but by this time these were located
  firmly around the temple construction in
  Jerusalem." Collins, ibid., 63
• 3. Dated Between 520-515 BCE

97
Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• C. Third Edition
• a. Joel (if not already included), Habakkuk
  (which had its own redactional history), Malachi
  and some "eschatological additions to other
  sections especially Zephaniah.
• b. "Reading between the lines of the various
  biblical texts relevant to this period
  (especially Malachi), we get the impression that
  enthusiasm for the religious aspects of the
  restored national life had become the faith of a
  minority who increasingly thought of themselves
  as a beleaguered band of the righteous in the
  midst of a nation of unfaithful sinners. Hope in

98
Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• the future became combined with pessimism about
  the present and produced a king of
  "eschatological" thinking, which affected The
  Twelve.... The result was further revision of the
  book that was more agonizingly introspective in
  its questions, more wildly optimistic in it
  visions of the future and more bitterly resentful
  of the enemy within and without." Collins,
  ibid., 64
• c. Dated middle of the fifth century BCE

99
Redactional Theology of the Twelve

• D. Final Edition
• Zechariah 9-14 and the appendices to Malachi
  (Mal. 4.4-6).

100
Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• "The principal themes of the whole book are those
  of covenant-election, fidelity and infidelity,
  fertility and infertility, turning and returning,
  the justice of God and the mercy of God, the
  kingship of God, the place of his dwelling
  (Temple / Mt. Zion), the nations as enemies, the
  nations as allies. For the post-exilic audience
  the message of The Twelve was primarily
  theological. At the same time the book also
  embodies a strongly political and ideological
  element in its vision of the future the ideal
  Israel is to be the restored Judah, a
  religious-political state in which all citizens
  will recognize the authority of the Lord, live
  according to his Law and give priority to the
  right and acceptable

101
Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• worship of the Lord in his temple in the holy
  city free from all defilement. The book is
  ambiguous in its international views, especially
  as to whether or not the nations will ever attain
  sufficient freedom from defilement to permit them
  to participate in this religious-political
  system, but any role envisioned for the nations
  in The Twelve is definitely subordinate."
• Terence Collins. The Scroll of the Twelve,
  The Mantel of Elijah The Redaction Criticism of
  the Prophetical Books, Sheffield Academic Press,
  1993, 65

102
Theology of the Redacted Twelve

• It appears that the books are ordered as they
  are so that the main points of the prophetic
  message will be highlighted. In fact, the Twelve
  are structured in a way that demonstrates that
  the sin of Israel and the nations, the punishment
  of the sin, and the restoration of both from that
  sin. These three emphases represent the heart of
  the content of the prophetic genre. The Twelves
  external structure therefore reflects its
  literary type.
• Paul R. House. The Unity of The Twelve,
  Sheffield, The Almond Press, 1990, 68

103
Principles of Organization Hosea

• A. Hos 1-3
• 1. Chapters 1-3 were fashioned into a unit,
  possibly at an early stage in the transmission of
  the poetry, and were positioned as an opening to
  the Hosea collection. In this