The Study of History

1
The Study of History
2
History

• History is a conversation between the present and
  the past.
• Historians ask questions about the past.
• Historical questions reflect the time and
  circumstances of the historian.
• History is a dynamic, ever-changing, and often
  contentious subject.

3
Historical Schools of Thought

• Early US history, before the late 1800s
• History that was written was mainly worshipful of
  the great men of US history such as George
  Washington
• Historical myths were used to teach lessons to
  the younger generation

4
Historical School of Thought

• American history became a defined professional
  field of study (in the universities) in the
  United States in the 1870s

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Historical Schools of Thought

• Domestic Affairs Four Schools of Historical
  Thought
• Progressive
• Neoconservative (Consensus)
• New Left
• Social History School

• Diplomatic History Three Schools of Thought
• Nationalist
• Realist
• Radicals

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Domestic Historical Schools of Thought

• Progressive school
• Dominated first ½ of 20th century
• Influenced by reform movements (Populism,
  Progressivism, New Deal)
• Explored economic and social forces that shaped
  U.S.
• Viewed past as conflicts between groups
  sympathized with the weaker groups (workers,
  nonwhites)
• Private property and free enterprise are the best
  way to provide opportunities for common
  Americans. Private property should be protected.
• Progressive historians generally ignored issues
  of race, gender and ethnicity.

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Domestic Historical Schools of Thought

• Neoconservative (consensus) school
• Post-World War II period (late 1940s through the
  1980s)
• Reaction against Progressive school
• Argued that Americans shared set of values areas
  of agreement within U.S.s basic democratic,
  capitalistic framework were more important than
  areas of disagreement
• Historians should focus on ideas that cross over
  time periods.
• Accomplishments and achievements of American
  democratic capitalism should be celebrated.

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Domestic Historical Schools of Thought

• New Left School
• Arose in 1960s era of civil rights, womens
  liberation, student rebellion (lasted through the
  1980s)
• Emphasized importance of conflict in US history
• Renewed interest in groups ignored by consensus
  school
• Criticized expansionist foreign policy of US
• Emphasized difficulties of Native Americans,
  blacks, women working class
• US history should celebrate the individualists,
  radicals, and anarchists of the past.

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Domestic Historical Schools of Thought

• Social history school
• Most current school of thought (1980s to
  present)
• Primarily concerned with discovering how
  ordinary Americans lived
• Use previously overlooked documents to
  reconstruct lives of average Americans (diaries,
  letters, and other documents from common people)
• U.S. history is characterized by conflict that,
  in general, is neither political nor economic.
  The conflict shaping US history is primarily
  cultural conflict.
• Historians should use comparative history to
  understand the US better.

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Diplomatic Historical Schools of Thought The
Nationalists

• US foreign policy is characterized by a
  commitment to high ideals. Combines a realistic
  concept of self-interest with a generous support
  of the goals of democracy, self-determination,
  and economic prosperity within our nation.
• US may have been an imperialist power, but it has
  been a good imperialist power, prepared from the
  beginning of any imperialist action for the
  eventual abandonment of American control.
• US has made few mistakes in foreign policy.
• US foreign policy is characterized by an
  unselfish idealism that is unequaled in the
  history of the world.

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Diplomatic Historical Schools of Thought The
Realists

• US foreign policy is characterized by too many
  changes and wide swings in policy.
• US too often regards itself as a special nation
  that is not restricted by the same rules other
  nations should follow.
• American people too often believe their nation
  goes to war because of evil people, nations, or
  some ism.
• Americans too often treat war as a sporting
  event, going to war to win, and forgetting
  objectives consistent with their own
  self-interest.
• US too often tries to right every wrong and
  correct every injustice.
• Foreign policy should not be a matter of public
  debate. Should be carried out by professional
  diplomats who assess the immediate and long-term
  consequences of the actions of the US government.

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Diplomatic Historical Schools of Thought The
Radicals

• US foreign policy is controlled by an economic
  elite who guide foreign policy to gain new
  economic markets and resources
• Economic elite manipulate and mislead the
  American people into believing that foreign
  policy objectives are matters of national rather
  than corporate or elite concern. (The masses
  fight and die while the elite profits.)
• US is an imperialist nation that prevents small
  nations from controlling their own resources.
• US has too often ignored the disadvantaged while
  pursuing an aggressive foreign policy. A more
  peaceful, understanding and cooperative foreign
  policy must replace the policies the US has
  traditionally pursued.

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Historiography

• A study of changing historical interpretations,
  shifting emphasis, and different methodologies.
  (The study of the way history has been and is
  written the history of historical writing)
• When you study historiography you do not study
  the events of the past directly, but the changing
  interpretations of those events in the works of
  individual historians.

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Basic Questions of Historiography

• Who wrote the source (primary or secondary)?
• For primary sources, we look at the person in his
  or her society
• For secondary sources, we consider the
  theoretical orientation of the historian
• What is the authenticity, authority,
  bias/interest, and intelligibility of the source?
• What was the view of history when the source was
  written?
• Was history supposed to provide moral lessons?
• What or who was the intended audience?
• What sources were privileged or ignored in the
  narrative?
• By what method was the evidence compiled?
• In what historical context was the work of
  history itself?

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Is History True?

• There is a debate among historians on this issue
• More conservative or traditional historians
  believe history is knowable and true
• More progressive or liberal historians believe
  history is created by the author and is not
  objectively true
• No one disagrees that most of the facts are true
• In fourteen hundred and ninety-two Columbus
  sailed the ocean blue.
• The disagreement comes over motivation and
  causation
• Why did Columbus sail?

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History is Objectively True and Knowable

• Truth is absolute
• Historians can never recreate the past, but the
  past can be accurately written about
• If historians follow the scientific method, they
  can reach the truth of history
• Historians must accept or reject evidence based
  on established, scientific principles
• All historians have biases and prejudices the
  scientific method allows these to largely be
  overcome
• Historians should write to learn about the past
  they should not allow their work to be used as
  political propaganda in the present

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History is Not Objectively True or Knowable

• Each historian has biases and prejudices that
  cannot be overcome
• Each witness to the past has biases and
  prejudices that cannot be overcome
• Choosing which historical evidence to accept (and
  which to reject) in order to create an
  understandable narrative is a subjective (not
  objective) process
• History is constantly revised and rewritten
  because of new information and new needs of
  society
• History is written for the needs of a group
  history changed depending on the group and its
  needs
• One historians history is another historians
  myth

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The Compromise

• Historians can never recreate or fully understand
  the past
• The best historians can do is learn as much as
  they can about the past and write it as
  faithfully as possible
• Historians must understand that whatever theyve
  written is not the final word on history- the
  future will bring changes and revisions