HUMAN BIOLOGY

1
HUMAN BIOLOGY
2
WHY?

• To learn about ourselves, our culture
• To learn the relationship between form function
• Study the parts to understand the whole body
• To become familiar with terminology that
  describes the structures processes associated
  with the human body

3
CULTURE the reasons for it

• CULTURE Social influences human behavior
• Why is culture important?
• To learn from the experiences of others
• Its carried on through language big brains
• Its faster acting easier to observe than the
  evolution of anatomy physiology

4
WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

• Biology comes from the Greek
• Bios life
• Logos to study
• Biology is the study of life!

5
What Is the Meaning Of Life?Top 7 ways to tell
the living from the nonliving

• 1 Cellular Organization
• 2 Reproduction
• 3 Metabolism
• 4 Homeostasis
• 5 Heredity
• 6 Responsiveness
• 7 Able to Grow Develop

6
If It Does NOT meet ALL 7

• ITS NOT ALIVE!

7
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

• All living things are made up of 1 or more cells
• Cells smallest unit capable of all life
  functions

8
REPRODUCTION

• How all life forms make more of their own kind
  from 1 generation to the next
• All living things (ORGANISMS) can reproduce

9
METABOLISM

• Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
• Chemistry is necessary for life!
• Balancing those chemical reactions
  HOMEOSTASIS

10
HOMEOSTASIS

• The ability to maintain a relatively constant
  internal environment (at all levels of body
  organization) despite changes in the outside
  environment

11
EXAMPLES of HOMEOSTASIS

• Body temperature
• Water-mineral balance
• Blood pressure
• Sleep-wake cycle
• Blood pH
• Any physiological process with a
  negative-feedback system of control

12
Why Is Homeostasis Such A Big Deal?

• Physiological processes can function only under a
  limited range of conditions
• Goldilocks factor
• EX--- Body temperature
• 98.6º F or 37º C

13
HEREDITY

• All organisms pass on traits from parent to
  offspring
• GENES sets of inherited instructions for making
  proteins
• MUTATION any change in a gene (DNA)
• DNA code on genes for making proteins

14
RESPONSIVENESS(irritability)

• 1 Detect information about the environment
• 2 Process this information
• 3 Respond appropriately

15
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

• GROWTH replace worn out cells
  
  
  increase in size
• DEVELOPMENT advance, fulfill with time
• mature

16
METABOLISM

• Sum of all chemical reactions within living cells
• catabolism ?? anabolism
• Catabolism break down
• (digest food into protein)
• Anabolism build up
• (rearrange proteins into new cells)

17
CELLS

• Functional structural building block of life
• This makes them the
• SMALLEST LIVING THINGS!

18
CELLS HAVE 3 THINGS IN ALL COMMON

• Made of Cytoplasm Nucleus enclosed by a Cell
  Membrane
• Cytoplasm fluid in a cell
• Nucleus cells control center, brain
• Cell Membrane outermost part of a cell,
• the cells skin

19
The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB)

• 1 Atoms
• 2
  Molecules
• 3
  Organelles
• 4 Cells
• 5 Tissues
• 6 Organs
• 7 Organ
  systems
• 8
  OrganismsYOU!
• 9
  Populations
• 10
  Ecosystem
• 11
  Biosphere

small
big
20
The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB)

• 1 Atoms
• 2
  Molecules
• 3
  Organelles
• ---------------------------- 4 Cells
  -----------------------------------
• 5 Tissues
• 6 Organs
• 7 Organ
  systems
• 8
  OrganismsYOU!
• 9
  Populations
• 10
  Ecosystem
• 11
  Biosphere

NOT ALIVE!
ITS VERY ALIVE!
21
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERYWHERE!

• Internet
• Magazines
• TV News
• Newspapers
• Books

22
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERDAY INVOLVING EVERYONE!

• Cloning
• Human Genome Project (HUGO)
• Curing AIDS
• Saving the rainforest
• Genetic engineering to cure genetic diseases
• EX- MS, CF, Dyslexia, Diabetes, Some cancers

23
HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERBODY!

• In 1999, world population exceeded 6 billion!
• Not enough space, food, energy, resources for
  everyone is a very SERIOUS problem.

24
RAINFORESTS HUMANS

• Destroying rainforests to make space to live
  affects plants animals
• Half of the worlds species live in the
  rainforests
• Tropical rainforests are currently being
  destroyed at a rate greater than 1 acre/ second!
• At this rate, the last tree will fall by 2050!

25
RAINFORESTS HUMANS

• This will destroy over 1 million species, making
  it the greatest extinction since the dinosaurs of
  65 million years ago!
• Who knows what potential medicines, foods,
  plastics, and genetic material we are losing?
• Biologists seek balance between the need for land
  protecting ALL life.

26
MORE PEOPLE MEANS MORE FOOD IS NEEDED

• Biologists seek new crops to grow more
  efficiently in tropical soils without too much
  fertilizer or pesticides
• Genetic engineers place plant genes into other
  plants to form new crops that are germs insect
  resistant AND bear fruit many times a year!
• EX- New crops are frost resistant due to inserted
  genes
• Insect resistant crops decrease the amount of
  bug spray used (saves )

27
HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES

• AIDS
• Cancer
• CF (cystic fibrosis)
• MS (multiple sclerosis)
• MD (muscular dystrophy)
• Diabetes
• Heart Problems (cardiopathies)
• Many others

28
AIDS

• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
• Since 1981 (when 1st recognized) 50 million
  people have been infected
• 14 million already dead, 2 million die per year
• Caused by HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
• It is an STD, also spread by other body fluids
• NOT including urine (pee) , feces (poop) sweat.

29
HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES

• Yes, AIDS-like diseases also affect other animals
• FIV Feline Immunodeficiency Virus
• FIV ONLY affects cats
• It is highly contagious among cats
• FIV is curable
• Humans do not catch it.
• Some forms of HIV can spread to other primates
  (chimps, monkeys, bonobos, etc.)

30
CANCER

• Cellular growth disorder
• When cells do not know when to stop reproducing
• Can be prematurely set off by chemicals
• (esp. in tobacco)
• Many human cancers are know curable, thanks to
  HUGO (HUman GenOme project)
• We will see this in detail in later chapters

31
CF

• Cystic Fibrosis
• Fatal disorder in which abnormally thick mucus
  builds up in many organs, esp. the lungs
• Too much mucus, not enough breathing
• Caused by a defective gene
• Researchers try to treat fatal CF with
• GENE THERAPY

32
GENE THERAPY

• Gene therapy replacing a defective genes with a
  healthy, normal one
• This treatment is used by GENETIC ENGINEERS
  sometimes called GENE THERAPISTS.
• This treatment may 1 day cure most genetic
  diseases, like CF, MS, MD, diabetes, dyslexia.
• The difficulty is not finding healthy genes, but
  introducing the normal genes into defective DNA.

33
1-2 REVIEW

• 1 Human Biology is a large part of everday life
• 2 Addressing a growing human population,
  environmental damage, human disease demand an
  answer we are gradually finding.

34
HOW IS HUMAN BIOLOGY STUDIED?

• Scientific Method
• 1 Observation --- using the 5 senses
• 2 Hypothesis---educated guess
• 3 Prediction that is falsifiable (can be proven
  wrong)
• Test (Experiment)
• Conclusion

35
OBSERVATION

• Native American peoples today have smaller teeth
  than the skulls of the same peoples 2000 years
  ago.

36
HYPOTHESIS

• Native American peoples needed larger teeth to
  eat grains and unprocessed foods before industry
  entered the USA and made other foods easier to
  obtain.

37
PREDICTION

• IF the hypothesis is TRUE
• Comparing teeth measurements on the skulls of
  ancient Shawnees to those of modern Shawnees on
  OK reservations will prove that the modern teeth
  are smaller.
• IF the hypothesis is NOT TRUE

38
TEST

• Perform an EXPERIMENT
• Experiment test to prove or disprove a
  hypothesis
• Apply the comparative method to the Sioux,
  Iroquois, or Chickasaw Tribes.
• Ask Why are the Shawnee different? if they
  prove to differ in teeth size compared to other
  tribes.
• Research Shawnee diet and eating habits.

39
CONCLUSION

• Evidence from the experiment either does or does
  not support the hypothesis.
• In the comparative teeth experiment
• The evidence actually does support the
  hypothesis.
• From this we could form a CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT

40
CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT

• Comparing teeth size in 2000 year old Shawnees to
  the modern day Shawnee proves that Shawnee teeth
  have gotten smaller.

41
Example of the Scientific Method

• Observation Eating red grapes induces labor in
  rats
• Hypothesis Caused by an agent in red grapes
• Prediction If the hypothesis is true, then
  pregnant rats given red grape juice (experimental
  treatment) will go into labor before rats given
  white grape juice (control treatment) go into
  labor.
• Test Do the experiment
• Conclusion Based on the results of the experiment

42
THEORY LAW

• THEORY explanation based on a set of related
  hypotheses that have been tested confirmed many
  times
• EX- Theory of Evolution
• LAW theory or a set of theories generally
  accepted as scientifically true accurate
• Some theories are so strongly supported that
  likelihood of their being rejected in the future
  is small
• EX Law of Gravity

43
SCIENTIFIC TRUTH

• SCIENTIFIC TRUTH
• There is no absolute certainty in a
  scientific theory. The possibility always
  remains that future evidence will cause a
  scientific theory to be revised or rejected. A
  scientists acceptance of a theory is always
  provisional.
• EC- Define FAITH

44
ATOMS

• Smallest units of matter
• Cannot be broken down further by chemical means
• Made of 3 subatomic particles
• 1 Proton
• 2 Electron
• 3 Neutron

45
SUBATOMIC CHART

• Neutrons Protons
  Electrons
• Mass 1 1
  0
• Charge 0 1
  -1
• Symbol nº p
  e-

46
SUBATOMIC MASS CHARGE

• Subatomic mass is measured in a unit called amu
• amu stands for atomic mass unit
• 1 amu the mass of 1 p
• 1 amu 1/1,660,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 gram
• Roughly 1.7 septillionth of a paper clips mass!
• The 1 charge of the p and the 1 charge of the
  e-
• are relative charges. Theres no actual unit
  (like volt)
• Actual charges 1.67x10 -19 coulombs (C) for p
• -1.67x10 -19
  coulombs for e-

47
NUCLEUS

• Nucleus center of the atom
• Always has p
• Thus it always has an overall charge.
• Sometimes it contains neutrons (NO charge)

48
ORBITALS

• A cloud or haze of orbiting e- around the
  nucleus
• AKA Energy levels, energy shells,
• e- levels, or e- shells
• Electrons ALWAYS orbit the nucleus
• Electrons are NEVER found inside the nucleus

49
ALL ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY BALANCED (electrically
neutral)

• There is ALWAYS 1 e- for every p
• Thus
• p e-
• EX-
• 2 p 2 e- 0
  (electrically neutral)

50
ELEMENTS

• Defined as a pure substance of only 1 type of
  atom
• There are currently 114 known elements
• Make up the Periodic Table of the Elements
• They differ in their number of protons (p)
• ATOMIC NUMBER number of protons (p)
• Atomic p

51
ATOMIC NUMBER

• Atomic p
• EX- Hydrogen has 1 p, Helium has 2 p
• Thus 1H and 2He
• H has the atomic 1, He has the atomic 2

52
ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY

• There are about 20
• Most common are
• Element Atomic
  
• Carbon (C) 6
• Hydrogen (H) 1
• Oxygen (O) 8
• Nitrogen (N) 7
• Phosphorus (P) 15

53
ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)

• Atomic weight (mass) refers to the weight (mass)
  of the nucleus or the mass of all those p and
  nº
• Atomic weight p nº
• RECALL the nucleus is made of p and nº
• p and nº each weigh 1 amu (atomic mass unit)
• Adding a p adds BOTH 1 amu and 1 C to the
  nucleus.
• Adding a nº adds ONLY 1 amu. There is no extra
  charge added (after all neutrons are neutral, O
  C)
• So.

54
ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)

• Atomic weight p nº
• More p means more charge
• More nº just means it weighs more
• Neutrons are atomic fat!!
• They just add weight and nothing else.

55
ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY

• There are about 20
• Most common are
• Element Atomic
  Atomic Weight
• Carbon (C) 6
  12
• Hydrogen (H) 1
  1
• Oxygen (O) 8
  16
• Nitrogen (N) 7
  14
• Phosphorus (P) 15
  31
• Atomic weight p nº

56
ATOMIC DATA

• How to quickly find
• p atomic number
• e- atomic number also
• RECALLall atoms are balanced so p e-
• nº atomic weight atomic number nº
• (p nº) -- p
  nº
• EX- (2 3) -- 2
  3nº

57
ISOTOPES

• Isotope An element that does not have the
  typical
• number of neutrons
• EX- Natural carbon is 12C.
• 11C, 13C, and 14C are isotopes (as in 14C
  dating)
• (sometimes less nº, sometimes more nº)
• Often unstable causing the nucleus to
  disintegrate
• This causes the emission of high energy particles
  (like X rays) known as RADIATION.

58
MOLECULES COMPOUNDS

• Molecule Group of atoms chemically joined
• Compound substance made of more than 1 kind of
  element
• EX- 2 oxygen atoms ?1 oxygen gas molecule
• (OO) ? (O2)
• 2 hydrogen atoms 1 oxygen atom ? H2O (water)
• Water is BOTH a molecule a compound.

59
3 KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS

• 1 Ionic steals e- (attraction of /-)
• 2 Covalent shares e-
• 3 Hydrogen polarity

60
IONIC BONDS

• Steals e- to form IONS that attract each other
• ION atom with an overall /- charge
• Cation ions
• Anion -- ions
• EX- Na attracts Cl- to form NaCl.table salt
• NaCl is an example of an IONIC
  compound

61
COVALENT BONDS

• Covalent bonds form when atoms share e-
• EX- Carbon shares e- with 4 hydrogen atoms
• H
• This is
  CH4 (methane)
• H--- C ---H
• H

62
HYDROGEN BONDING

• Weakest bond, occurs between POLAR molecules
• Polar molecules have 1 end and 1 end, sort of
  like a bar magnet or a AA battery.
• They can bond to themselves in chains.
• EX-
• -- --
  --

63
WATER IS POLAR!

• Water bonds to itself in chains
• H H H
  H
• O- O- O-
  O-
• H H H
  H

64
WHY IS WATER WET?(yes, there really is a reason
why!)

• Because it is both ADHESIVE COHESIVE!
• Cohesive it bonds to itself (in drops)
• Adhesive it bonds to other things (like glass)
• H H H
  H
• O- O- O-
  O-
• H H H
  H

65
Review the 3 Kinds of Chemical Bonds

• 1 Ionic- By gaining or losing e-, ions of
  opposite charges are attracted to each other
• 2 Covalent- atoms sharing e-
• 3 Hydrogen- weak bond between the oppositely
  charged poles (ends) of polar molecules

66
PREDICTING CHEMICAL BONDS

• Which chemicals will bond and which bond they
  form is not by chance.
• It depends on the of e- needed to complete the
  outermost electron orbital.
• VALENCE electrons the outermost electrons
• This is the basic idea of the Octet Rule

67
THE OCTET RULE

• Oct- 8
• A) Inner orbitals MUST fill first
• B) 1st orbital holds 2 e- max
• C) 2nd orbital holds 8 e- max
• D) 3rd orbital holds 8 e- max

68
WHAT DETERMINES IF AN ATOM IS BALANCED OR STABLE?

• By using the term ATOM, we mean it is BALANCED or
  ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL
• BALANCED means the p e-
• All ()s plus all (-)s 0, they cancel each
  other out
• STABLE means the chemicals will not REACT
  (will not try to form any type of bond).
• STABLE they have a FULL VALENCE

69
INERT GASES

• Inert not active, will not react
• Have a completed outer (valence) e- orbital is
  stable
• Last column on right in Periodic Table of
  Elements
• AKA Noble Gases

70
INERT GASES (He)

• Helium (He) atomic 2
• 2 p and 2 e-
• 2 e- in inner orbital, He is chemically
  non-reactive

71
INERT GASES (Ne)

• Neon (Ne) atomic 10
• 2 e- in inner orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital
• Ne is chemically non-reactive

72
IONS

• An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that
  carries an electric charge (/-)
• Formed by too many or too little e-
• Cation ion
• Anion -- ion
• EX- Na, Cl- , NH4 , C2H3O2-

73
SODIUM CATION

• Sodium atomic 11
• 11 p and 11 e-
• 2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital 1 e-
  extra
• The extra e- is lost (stolen), leaving the sodium
  cation with a net positive chargeNa

74
CHLORINE ANION

• Chlorine atomic 17
• 17 p and 17 e-
• 2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital, 7 e-
  extra
• 7 extra e- fill the 3rd orbital
• It needs 1 more e- to be chemically stable
• Chlorine anion attracts an extra e- to complete
  its valence orbital ? has a net negative charge
  (Cl-)

75
OPPOSITES ATTRACT

• and charged ions attract each other
• Na joins Cl- to become NaCl (table salt)
• The molecule is both BALANCED STABLE.
• This is an IONIC BOND
• The bond comes from the mutual attraction of
  oppositely charged ions
• e- pass from 1 ion to another
• They are NOT shared, more like STOLEN!

76
COVALENT BONDS

• When e- are shared between atoms
• HYDROGEN
• Hydrogen atomic 1
• 1p and 1 e-
• Needs 1 more e- to complete 1st orbital

77
COVALENT BONDS

• CARBON
• Carbon atomic 6
• 6 p and 6 e-
• 6 e- is enough to fill the 1st orbital (2 e-)
  with 4 e- left over for the 2nd orbital
• It needs 4 more e- to complete it valence.

78
COVALENT SINGLE BONDS

• When 1 e- is shared, shown by 1 line
• 1 carbon shares its valent e- with 4 hydrogens
• H
• This is
  CH4 (methane)
• H--- C ---H
• H

79
COVALENT BONDS

• OXYGEN
• Oxygen atomic 8
• 8p and 8 e-
• Inner orbital filled with 2 e-
• 6 e- left over for 2nd orbital
• It needs 2 more e- to complete the 2nd orbital

80
DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS

• When 2 pairs of electrons are shared
• Shown by 2 lines ()
• EX- OCOCO2.Carbon dioxide
• OO.O2Diatomic oxygen
• HONO.HNO3.Nitric acid
• H
• Diatomic 2 alike atoms bonded together (N2 ,O2,
  H2)

81
HYDROGEN BONDS

• Relatively weak bond between a positively charged
  
• hydrogen ion (H) in a molecule and a
  negatively charged ion in another
  molecule
• EX- RECALL, polar water forms cohesive chains.
• HH
• O negative O end attracted by positive
  H end
• HH
• O

82
POLAR MOLECULES

• Polar molecules molecules with an unequal
  distribution of electrical charge (more e- on 1
  end)
• EX- water, isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide

83
NONPOLAR MOLECULES

• Nonpolar molecules- molecules that have an equal
  distribution of electrical charges (e-)
• EX- gasoline, oil, wax, fatty acids

84
RATING THE STRENGTHS OF CHEMICALS BONDS

• GOLD--------Covalent
• SILVER-------Ionic
• BRONZE-----Hydrogen

85
REVIEW

• All matter is made of atoms
• Atoms consist of e-, p, nº
• Molecule group of atoms bound by covalent bonds
• H bonding occurs between polar molecules
• Ion atom with a charge
• Opposites charges may form ionic bonds
• Sec 2-1 Q1-5 pg 30

86
WHAT IS pH?

• Water has 2 ions
• H plus OH- H2O
• H cation is a positive hydrogen ion
• OH- anion is called a hydroxide or hydroxyl group
• pH is a way of counting those H cations

87
POTENZ H

• The H in pH stands for H (or hydrogen cation)
• The p in pH stands for potenz
• Potenz is the German term for
• the negative power of H
• When H increases, OH- decreases
• Its a fraction!
• H x OH- 10-14 or 1/100,000,000,000,000

88
THE pH SCALE

• Think of pH as asking
• How many H are in a solution?
• The pH scale refers to H only
• The pH scale runs from 0-14
• lt7 acid, more H
• 7 neutral, like water because it has both H
  OH-
• gt7 base or alkaline, less H

89
THE pH SCALE

• 0---------------------------7-----------------
  -----------14
• Acid Base
• H, OH-
  H, OH-
• Neutral
• (H2O or HOH)
• H OH-

90
THE pH SCALE

91
The pH UNIT

• Each pH unit represents a factor of 10
• EX-
• The pH 6 is 100x more acidic than the pH 8
• (8-6 2102 100)
• Try thisItem A pH 9, Item B pH 5
• Which Item is more acidic and by how much?

92
pH IN THE HUMAN BODY

• The body must maintain the pH of stuff within a
  narrow range limits for the normal functioning of
  physiological processes
• Blood pH.7.2-7.4
• Saliva (spit) pH7
• Cytoplasm.7.2
• Stomach juices pH2
• Lysosome pH4-5
• Small intestine pH.8
• cells digestive enzyme sac--digests glucose
  (1 human fuel)

93
WATER

• Covers 75 of the planet Earth
• Is molecularly 67 of the human body
• Polar ions dissolve well in it, after all
• Water is the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT, because most
  things will dissolve in it.
• Has a high heat of evaporation ? heat constancy
• Water is not lost easily body temp. remains
  stable

94
OTHER MOLECULES

• Other molecules are much, much bigger than water
• EX- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA
• These are ORGANIC molecules
• they all contain carbon (C)
• Sec 2-2 Q1-5 pg 33

95
ORGANIC MOLECULES

• Always contain carbon (C)
• NO C, NO LIFE! All life on Earth is C based
• Cs 4 bonding sites allow life to be possible.
• Life on other planets SHOULD also be C based.
• If not, they may be silicon (Si) based as it too
  has 4 bonding sites.
• Note the location of C and Si on the Periodic
  Table.

96
ORGANIC MOLECULES

• Always contain carbon (C )
• Usually also contain hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
  /or nitrogen (N)
• C and others are usually in long covalent chains
• EX- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes,
• nucleic acids

97
CARBOHYDRATES

• Ratio of CHO 121
• EX- C1H2O1 or C3H6O3
• Often abbreviated as CHO
• May exist as single molecules or in complex
  chains

98
MONOSACCHARIDES

• Simple sugars
• Mono 1, saccharide sugar
• Sugar names end in ose
• Glucose- C6H12O6---the basic plant sugar
• Fructose- in fruits like pears, pineapples
• Galactose- in plants and milk

99
MONOSACCHARIDES

100
DISACCHARIDES

• Are double sugars
• Di- means 2
• Monosaccharides monosaccharides disaccharide
• Sucrose some fruits
• Lactose in milk
• Maltose in (malt) chocolate

101
DISACCHARIDES

102
POLYSACCHARIDES

• Polysaccharides are CHOs that exist as long
  chains of monosaccharides.
• Poly- many
• EX- Starch- in potatoes
• Glycogen-stored body energy (not exactly fat
  close)
• Cellulose- pulpy stuff from plants makes paper
• Chitin (KI ten)- hard fiber found in animal
  shells, insect exoskeletons (shells) in the
  cell walls of fungi (mold mildew)

103
POLYSACCHARIDES

104
CHO COMPLEXITY

• CHOs are divided into 2 groups
• Simple CHOs Complex CHOs
• Simple CHOs include both monosaccharides and
• disaccharides
• Complex CHOs include polysaccharides

105
SIMPLE CHOs

• Covalent bonds hold ALL monosaccharides together
• Glucose is the most important simple CHO!
• Glucose (C6H12O6) is the primary fuel for humans!
• (its the only fuel source used by the brain!)
• Glucose is made by plants during photosynthesis
• Glucose is made of 6 C molecules that form a ring
  when they are dissolved in water.

106
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE CHOs

• Mono- Mono- Di-
• glucose fructose SUCROSE
• glucose glucose MALTOSE
• glucose galactose LACTOSE

107
COMPLEX CHOs

• These are polysaccharides long chains of
  monosaccharides joined by covalent bonds
• They serve as stored energy in plants (starch)
• animals (glycogen)
• Humans store glycogen in the liver muscles
• May be converted back into glucose when energy is
  needed

108
COMPLEX CHOs

• Some polysaccharides are rigid structural
  materials
• EX- Cellulose in plants, Chitin in arthropod
  shells
• Mammals cannot free glucose from cellulose alone
• We need help from bacteria in the post-stomach
  digestive tract to break down cellulose fibers
• Cellulose fibers are what we call roughage
• It is truly rough to digestlike the strings in
  celery

109
REVIEW

• pH scale 0-14, 0 acid (H), 14 base (OH-)
• 7 neutral (H2O or HOH) has both H OH-
• No C, No water, NO LIFE!
• C,H,O,N make organic molecules long chains
• Mono-, disaccharides are simple CHOs
• Polysaccharides are complex CHOs
• CHOs give people energy
• Glucose is the primary human fuel

110
LIPIDS

• Type of fat
• These are non-polar molecules
• Nonpolarequal distribution of electrical charge
  (e-)

111
NONPOLAR REPELS WATER

• Nonpolar molecules never dissolve in water
• EX- water will not dissolve oil, gas, or wax
• Hydrophobic-(fears water) wont dissolve in H2O
• Hydrophilic- (loves water) easily dissolves in
  H2O

112
LAW OF POLARITY

• Like dissolves in like
• Polar dissolves in polar ONLY
• Nonpolar dissolves in nonpolar ONLY
• Water and oil dont mix!

113
3 TYPES OF LIPIDS ESSENTIAL TO HUMANS

• 1 Triglycerides
• 2 Phospholipids
• 3 Steroids

114
TRIGLYCERIDES

• Made of a Glycerol head and 3 Fatty Acid tails
• May be saturated or unsaturated

115
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• The saturated fatty acid tails are C chains
  crammed full or saturated with hydrogen atoms .
• Saturated fats (EX-butter) are solid at room
  temp.
• Too much is VERY unhealthy!

116
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• A double covalent bond exists between at least 1
  pair of Cs (where Hs could bond with the C)
• CC
• Unsaturated fats (EX-olive oil) -liquid at room
  temp.
• MUCH healthier (hydrogenated vegetable oil)

117
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• Unsaturated fats with fatty acid chains
  containing more than 1 double covalent bond
• Poly- manyEX- CCCC
• Healthiest of all!

118
PHOSPHOLIPIDS

• Glycerol head,2 fatty acids phosphate group
  (PO4)
• Glycerol fatty acids are nonpolar (hydrophobic)
• Phosphate groups are polar (hydrophilic)
• A cell membrane (cells skin) is made of a double
  layer of phospholipids phospholipid bilayer

119
STEROIDS

• 4 C rings a functional group ( R)
• Many different kinds
• Important in reproductive maturation metabolism
• EX- Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol
• NO FAT, NO SEX!

120
PROTEINS

• PROTEINS chains of AMINO ACIDS (AA)
• Proteins are the building blocks of most body
  structures (hair, cells, muscle, bone)
• Most common organic molecule..its even in comets
• Found in ALL life.

121
AMINO ACIDS

• Chainlike molecules with a central C bonded to
• 1 Amino group (NH2)
• 2 Carboxyl group (COOH)
• 3 a single hydrogen atom (H)
• 4 Side functional group (R )

122
THE AMINO ALPHABET

• There are 20 amino acids important to biology
• There are 26 letters in the English alphabet
• Like how the order and amount of letters used
  determine which word made, so the order and
  amount of AA used determine which protein is
  made.
• What words are made from T,C,A?

123
NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Nucleic acids Long chains of smaller
  molecules called NUCLEOTIDES
• Nucleotides have 3 parts
• 1 sugar (-ose)
• 2 base (OH-, the opposite of an acid)
• 3 phosphate group (PO4)

124
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

• 1 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• 2 RNA (ribonucleic acid)

125
DNA

• DNA has 2 strands of nucleotides that spiral
  around each other.
• This is called a double helix
• Shape was discovered by Watson Crick in 1953
• The strands are held together by H bonds between
  bases across from each other forming the
  rungs of the twisted ladder.

126
CHROMOSOMES ARE DNA

• Chromosomes are made up of very long strands of
  DNA, which is the code on genes containing the
  instructions for making proteins

127
RNA

• Single strand of nucleotides
• Plays several roles in cells, esp. in making
  protein

128
ATP

• ATP a nucleotide called adenosine triphosphate
• Its a single nucleotide with 2 extra, high
• energy-storing phosphate (PO4) groups
• It stores energy ONLY TEMPORARILY, like a
  battery, between the 2nd 3rd PO4s.
• A-PO4-PO4 PO4
• When we catabolize food, energy is released.
• Energy is captured stored in ATP,
  later used to operate the bodys
  individual cells.

129
REVIEW

• Organic componds (C) are found in living things.
• CHOs, like glucose, are energy sources some are
  used as structural materials in organisms.
• Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy
  found in cell membranes as phosphlipids.
• Proteins are chains of AA, The AA sequence
  determines a proteins shape function.
• Nucleic acids store transmit heredity info.
• ATP is the main energy currency of cells
• Sec 2-3 Q 1-5 pg 37

130
WHAT GOOD ARE PROTEINS?

• ENZYME BOOK CH 2-4?

131
CYTOLOGY

• Cyte- cell
• -ology study of
• CYTOLOGY study of cells

132
FOUNDERS OF CYTOLOGY

• Robert Hooke
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• Mattias Schleiden
• Theodor Schwann
• Rudolph Virchow

133
ROBERT HOOKE

• In 1665 observed slices of cork under a
  microscope
• He saw little boxes
• He named these boxes cells, because they
  reminded him of the small rooms where monks
  lived inside monastaries.

134
ANTON van LEEUWENHOEK

• Used a microscope to observe drops of rain water
• He discovered little creatures living there!
• He named these creatures animalcules, which
  means tiny animals.

135
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS

• Abbreviated SI
• Same thing as the metric system
• It is a decimal system
• All units are based upon powers of 10
• WHY?

136
BRIEF SI TABLE

• Meter base unit for measuring distance
• Meter literally means measure________________
  
• kilo- 1,000
• -meter 1
• centi- .01 or 1/100
• milli- .001 or 1/1000
• micro- .000001 or 1/1,000,000 (1 millionth)
• nano- .000000001 or 1/1,000,000,000 (1
  billionth)

137
SI SYMBOLS

• km kilometer
• meter 3.???ft
• cm centimeter
• mm millimeter
• µm micrometer
• nm nanometer

138
CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROSCOPES

• Two Types of Microscopes
• 1 Light microscopes
• 2 Electron microscopes

139
LIGHT MICROSCOPES

• Light passes through one or more lenses to
  produce an enlarged image of a specimen or
  MICROGRAPH
• MICROGRAPH an image produced by a microscope

140
MAGNIFICATION

• Ability to make an image appear larger than its
  actual size
• EX- Magnification value of 200x means the image
  is 200 times larger than the actual specimen

141
RESOLUTION

• A measure of the clarity of an image
• RECALLAs magnification increases,
• resolution decreases!
• The bigger the image, the blurrier it
  gets!

142
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

• Forms an image of a specimen using a beam of
  electrons instead of light
• No cell can survive an e- microscope as specimen
  preparation requires a type of staining being
  placed in a vacuum (/or being sliced!)
• TWO TYPES
• 1 TEM transmission e- microscope
• 2 SEM scanning e- microscope

143
TEM

• Transmission e- microscope
• The e- beam is aimed at a slice of a specimen
  stained with metal ions
• TEM micrographs are always black white

144
SEM

• Scanning e- microscope
• The e- beam is aimed at a specimen coated with
  metal ions
• SEM micrographs are 3D, usually BW, but can be
  artificially colored

145
STM

• Scanning Tunneling Microscope
• Uses a needle-like probe to measure differences
  in voltage caused by e- s that leak,or tunnel,
  
• from the surface of a specimen
• A computer tracks the movement of the probe
• STM micrographs are 3D and in color
• STMs can be used to study living specimens
• You can even see individual atoms!

146
MICROSCOPE REVIEW

• Microscopes enable us to examine the details of
  cell structure to understand how organisms
  function.
• Scientists use the SI system to measure the size
  of objects
• Light microscopes have a low magnification can
  be used to examine living cells.
• Electron microscopes have a high magnification,
  but cannot be used to study living cells
• The STM uses a computer to generate 3D images of
  a specimen.
• Sec 3-1 Q1-5 pg 54

147
CELL THEORISTS

• Mattias Schleiden--
• German botanist in 1838 concluded that a plant
  was composed entirely of cells
• Theodor Schwann--
• German zoologist who claimed that animals were
  also made up of cells
• Rudolph Virchow--
• German physician who determined that cells come
  only from other cells

148
CELL THEORY

• Based on the combined observations of
• Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow
• All living things are made of one or more cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure function
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells

149
CELLS MUST BE SMALL

• Small cells work more efficiently than large
  cells
• All substances that enter or leave a cell must
  cross the cells surface
• If the cells surface-to-area ratio is too low,
  substances cannot move through the cell quickly
  enough to meet the cells needs.
• Substances do not need to travel as far to reach
  the center of a smaller cell.
• This is why smaller things are more efficient
  (ants).

150
CELL FEATURES

• There are many parts needed to make up a
  functioning cell.
• These parts are referred to as cellular
  features or organelles (meaning little
  organs)

151
CELL MEMBRANE

• Outer boundary, skin
• Encloses the cell separates its interior from
  its outer surroundings
• Regulates what enters leaves the cell

152
CYTOPLASM

• Is the interior of a cell
• It is mostly water, so it is very fluid

153
CYTOSKELETON

• A collection of connected microscopic protein
  fibers that suspends other cell structures within
  the cytoplasm
• Like the metal skeleton of a skyscraper,
• only much smaller.
• The cytoskeleton holds the cell together keeps
  it from collapsing

154
RIBOSOMES

• Cellular structures that make protein
• These are the Protein Factories!

155
DNA

• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Provides the instructions for making protein that
  will be read by the ribosomes.
• These instructions regulate cell activity and
  provide a raw building material for making what
  the cell needs.
• It also enables the cell to reproduce by storing
  hereditary information.

156
TWO TYPES OF CELLS

• 1 Prokaryotes
• 2 Eukaryotes

157
PROKARYOTES

• Simplest smallest cells
• Lack a nucleus other internal compartments
  known as organelles.
• Cannot carry out specialized functions
• Genetic material is a single circular strand of
  DNA
• Modern prokaryotes are called BACTERIA

158
BACTERIA

• Modern prokaryotes
• Exist in a broad range of conditions
• Grow divide rapidly
• Some can make their own food
• Some can live without oxygen
• Enzymes ribosomes are free to move around in
  the cytoplasm because there are no internal
  structures (organelles) to divide the cell into
  compartments their parts float around in
  there!
• DNA is circular (ring), suspended in the cytoplasm

159
CELL WALL

• Surrounds the cell membrane to provide
• protection, structure, support.
• Think of the cell membrane as the SKIN,
• The cell wall as the SUIT OF ARMOR.
• Cell walls are found in bacteria, fungi,
  plants.

160
CAPSULE

• Strands of polysaccharides that may surround the
  cell wall of a bacteria
• These enable the bacteria to cling to almost
  anything
• The capsule is like a Velcro suit!

161
FLAGELLA

• Single (only 1) called a flagellum
• More than one called flagella
• Long, threadlike structures that protrude from
  the cells surface
• Long, whip-like tails that allow some cells to
  swim or move

162
EUKARYOTES

• First cells with internal compartments
• Have a nucleus
• Have other organelles

163
NUCLEUS

• Control center of the cell, like the brain
• Internal compartment (organelle) that
• houses the cells DNA
• It has all the info. (DNA), so it is the
• boss (control center)!

164
ORGANELLE

• Any structure that carries out a specific
  activity inside of a cell
• It comes from the French language meaning
• little organs. (-elle little)

165
CILIA

• Small hair-like structures, found on some
  eukaryotes, that protrude from the cell membrane.
• Used to make oar-like movements
• May be used to help a cell swim through a fluid
• May also be used to move substances across a
  cells surface
• EX- Cilia in the wind pipes sweep debris mucus
  out of the lungs

166
CYTOPLASM vs. PROTOPLASM

• Cytoplasm everything inside the cell membrane,
• BUT OUTSIDE the nucleus
• Protoplasm Everything inside the cell membrane,
  including the nucleus
• Protoplasm is ALLDAT, cytoplasm is not.
• EX- Cytoplasm Nucleus Protoplasm

167
CYTOSKELETON FIBERS

• The eukaryotic cell is supported by the
  cytoskeleton
• There are 2 types of protein fibers that form the
  cytoskeleton
• 1 Microtubuleshollow, flexible
• 2 Microfilamentssolid, rigid

168
MICROTUBULES

• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the
  cytoskeleton
• Microtubules are long tubes (tubules)
• Long, hollow tubes that extend throughout
  the cytoplasm
• These, being hollow, are easy to bend and allow
  the cell to flex and it may also help move
  organelles around inside the cell

169
MICROFILAMENTS

• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the
  cytoskeleton
• These are thin protein strands that help support
  the cells shape structure
• They are solid, unlike microtubules.
• These give strength and rigidity to the
  cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments hold things in place, restricting
  movement

170
CELL STRUCTURE REVIEW

• Cell membrane Skin
• Cell wall Suit of Armor
• Capsule Velcro Suit
• Nucleus Brain
• Flagella long swimming tail, whip-like
• Cilia short swimming hairs, oar-like
• Cytoskeleton 2 protein fibers
• 1 microtubules (hollow), 2 microfilament (solid)

171
CELL MEMBRANES

• Cell membranes are fluid like a soap bubble.
• The fluidity of the cell membrane is caused by
  lipids
• These lipids form a barrier that separates the
  inside of a cell from the outer environment
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable
• It allows only certain substances to enter and
  exit
• the cell

172
PHOSPHOLIPIDS

• Interacts with water to cause a cell membrane to
  become selectively permeable
• Made of a phosphate group (PO4) with 2 fatty
  acids
• Has a polar head and 2 nonpolar tails
• The head contains the phosphate group is
  attracted to water (hydrophilic loves water)
• The tails contain the nonpolar fatty acids
• repels water (hydrophobic fears water)

173
LIPID BILAYER

• Phospholipids arranged in double layers (2 ply)
• This arrangement is found in the cell membrane
• Nonpolar tails of the phospholipids make up the
  interior of the bilayer they are forced to
  remain here because water inside outside the
  cell repels them.
• Ions polar molecules, including proteins
  sugars, are repelled by the nonpolar interior of
  the bilayer, forcing them to remain outside the
  cell.
• It takes an active door to let them inside the
  cell.

174
PROTEINS EMBEDDED IN THE LIPID BILAYER

• Proteins are chains of amino acids, some of which
  are polar, others nonpolar.
• The nonpolar parts (center) of a protein is
  attracted to the interior of the lipid bilayer,
  but is repelled by the water inside outside the
  cell.
• The polar parts (ends) of the protein are
  attracted to the water on both sides of the lipid
  bilayer.
• These attractions hold the protein in the proper
  position inside the lipid bilayer (cell
  membrane).

175
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• 1 Cell-surface marker proteins attached to a CHO
  help define cell type (like a name tagliver,
  heart, blood, etc.)
• 2 Receptor proteins recognize join with
  specific substances.
• 3 Enzymes embedded in the cell membrane are
  involved in biochemical reactions inside the
  cell.
• 4 Transport proteins aid in the movement of
  substances into out of the cell.

176
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS REVIEW

• 1 Cell-surface marker proteins name tags
• 2 Receptor proteins antennae for
  hormones/signals
• 3 Enzymes speed up biochemical reactions
• 4 Transport proteins doorways
• REMEMBER
• The cell membrane is fluid due to the lipids,
  allowing the proteins to move or float round
• Imagine a wall with a floating door! They
  actually exist!

177
REVIEW

• The cell theory has 3 parts.
• Small cells function more efficiently than large
  ones because small cells have a higher
  surface-area-to- volume ratio than larger cells.
• All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm,
  ribosomes, DNA .
• Prokaryotic cells NO nucleus, NO organelles
• Eukaryotic cells HAVE nucleus, organelles,
  cytoskeleton
• The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is made of a
  double layer of phospholipid molecules.
• Proteins in cell membranes include enzymes,
  receptor proteins, transport proteins,
  cell-surface marker proteins
• Sec 3-2 Q1-5 pg 60

178
ORGANELLES (pgs 55-66)

• Little organs inside a cell,
• much like our own organs.
• These are the separate compartments inside a cell
  that perform specialized functions.
• Organelles are suspended in CYTOSOL (fluid)
• Organelles Cytosol Cytoplasm (solids fluid)
• Organelles are ONLY found in eukaryotes.
• (NOT in prokaryotes bacteria)

179
EXAMPLES OF ORGANELLES

• 1 Nucleus
• 2 Nucleolus
• 3 Ribosomes
• 4 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) rER sER
• 5 Golgi apparatus
• 6 Cell membrane ( cell wall if present)
• 7 Mitochondria
• 8 Lysosomes
• 9 Peroxisomes
• 10 Centrioles

180
NUCLEUS

• Control center of a cell, brain
• Surrounded by a double membrane called the
  nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane.
• Ribosomal proteins RNA are made here
• Ribosomes are partially formed in a central area
  of the nucleus called the NUCLEOLUS.

181
NUCLEAR DNA

• Most of the cells DNA is stored in the nucleus.
• Nuclear DNA stores genetic information.
• It also contains the instructions for the proper
  amino acid sequence of each protein.
• Proteins regulate chemical reactions many other
  cellular functions
• THUS
• The nucleus is the control center because it
  regulates cell structure function by
  controlling protein production.

182
DNA CHROMOSOMES

• Most of the cells DNA is stored in the nucleus
• DNA exists most of the time in the form of
  elongated strands or strings.
• When a cell is about to divide, DNA strands wind
  into a compact rod shaped form called
  Chromosomes.
• These are not visible unless cell ready to
  divide.
• DNA is the yarn, Chromosomes are the skeen,
  Genes are the designs/ stripes in the skeen.

183
NUCLEOLUS

• Very center of the nucleus
• Completely enclosed by the nucleus
• Houses RNA

184
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

• Sometimes called the nuclear membrane
• It completely encloses the nucleus, skin
• Made of 2 lipid bilayers that separate the
  nucleus from the cytoplasm
• Small channels called nuclear pores cover its
  surface
• These pores allow RNA to move out of the nucleus
  into the cytoplasm of the cell.

185
RIBOSOMES

• They make protein! HOW?
• 1 The genetic code of DNA is translated into
  mesenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus.
• 2 mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores
  in the nuclear envelope, heads to the ribosomes.
• 3 Ribosomes chemically read the translated code
  on the mRNA strands link amino acids together
  in the correct sequence to make a protein. The
  mRNA holds a translation of DNAs instructions on
  which order to place the amino acids in to make a
  specific protein.

186
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

• Endo- inside, -plasmic cytoplasm
• Reticulum network or system
• ER a network inside the cytoplasm of a cell
• The ER is a system of internal membranes that
  move proteins other substances throughout the
  cell.
• The membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer with
  embedded proteins.
• Its usually directly attached to the inside of
  the
• cell membrane.
• ER is divided into the rough ER the smooth ER.

187
ROUGH ER (rER)

• This is the part of the ER that houses ribosomes.
• RECALLRibosomes make protein
• The rER helps transport the proteins made by the
  attached ribosomes, like a railroad next to a
  factory.
• As a protein is made, it passes through the ER
  membrane into the hollow of the ER tube.
• The completed protein becomes surrounded as a
  piece of the ER wall is pinched off to form a
  Vesicle
• (fatty sac) around the new protein like a
  package.

188
VESICLES

• Vesicles are a small membrane sac that transports
  substances in a cell.
• They are usually made from the pinched off walls
  of an organelle or a lipid bilayer.
• EX-Vesicles can be made from the walls of the ER,
  
• Golgi apparatus, cell membrane.

189
SMOOTH ER (sER)

• Part of the ER that lacks ribosomes
• (that is why its smooth!).
• Its downstream from the rough ER (rER).
• It simply exists as a tube through which vesicles
  (containing proteins and other substances)
  travel.
• The sER makes phospholipids to maintain patch
  the cell membrane.
• It also detoxifies toxins like alcoholliver
  cells contain many lengths of sER.

190
GOLGI APPARATUS

• Named after ________ Golgi
• Set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that serve
  to package distribute proteins.
• Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus modify the
  proteins.
• Modified proteins are repackaged into new
  vesicles that form from the pinched-off lipid
  surface of the Golgi apparatus.

191
CELL MEMBRANE

• Acts as a skin to protect hold the cell
  together.
• However, vesicles can flow through the cell
  membrane easily as to export its contents
  outside the cell.
• When vesicles empty their contents outside the
  cell, the process is called EXOCYTOSIS, meaning
  to exit the cell.

192
THE MIGHTY MITOCHONDRIA

• Mitochondrion if singular, (2 Mitochondria)
• This is the organelle that harvests energy from
  organic compounds to make ATP, the main energy
  currency of cells
• This is the Powerhouse of the Cell.
• Cells with a high energy requirement, like muscle
  cells, may contain thousands of mitochondria.

193
MITOCHONDRIAL STRUCTURE

• It has both an inner an outer membrane
• The outer is smooth, the inner is folded to
  increase the surface area for chemical
  reactions.
• Chemical reactions occur in both membranes to
  produce ATP, but mostly on the folded inner
  membrane because there is more room.
• Mito pic! needed

194
MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION

• These are the sites of energy production.
• C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O
  E
• glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water
  energy
• This chemical equation makes life on Earth
  possible.
• Cellular respiration is photosynthesis in reverse!

195
WHAT HAPPENS TO THE ENERGY?

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy saver
  of the cell.
• ATP works like a battery to temporarily store
  energy
• High energy bonds exist between the last 2 PO4 s
• A-PO4-PO4 PO4
• EACH molecule of glucose charges 38 ATPs !!!

196
ATP

• Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide
• It is the main energy currency of cells.
• Some ATP is produced in the cytoplasm,
• but the majority is produced by mitochondria.
• The ATPs circulates throughout the body
  dispersing energy needed for skeletal muscles
  the heart, as well as the energy needed to start
  chemical reactions for life, memories, dreams,
  to name a few uses.
• Anywhere energy is needed, ATP supplies.

197
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

• Mitochondria also have their own DNA, ribosomes,
  produce some of their own proteins!
• Mitochondrial DNA is independent of nuclear DNA
  is similar to the circular DNA of bacteria.
• The widely accepted Endosymbiotic Theory, states
  that prokaryotes may be the ancestors of animal
  mitochondria, that at 1 time they were free
  living organisms that formed a mutual
  relationship with another cell!

198
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY?
199
LYSOSOMES

• Small vesicles (also considered organelles) that
  contain a cells digestive enzymes.
• This is one type of vesicle that contains a
  protein (enzyme) formed by the Golgi apparatus
  that stays inside the cell for its function it
  does not leave the cell by the process or
  exocytosis.
• The PEROXISOME is another example of a vesicle
  that remains inside the cell.

200
LYSOSOME FUNCTIONS

• They often migrate to mitochondria to digest
  glucose to release energy used to charge ATP.
• Others are used to eat bacteria, germs, invaders.
• Also used to recycle wornout/defective
• organelles cells.
• Lots of them are inside WBCs (white blood cells)
• for immunity (eating germs).

201
PEROXISOMES

• Enzyme-filled vesicles that digest fats.
• RECALL...fats long chains of nonpolar fatty
  acids
• Peroxisomes are also made by the Golgi apparatus
  stay inside the cell, like lysosomes.
• They are involved in removing poiso