Computer software, or just software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.

1
What is Software?
Computer software, or just software is a general
term used to describe a collection of computer
programs, procedures and documentation that
perform some tasks on a computer system.
What is Hardware?
Hardware is a general term that refers to the
physical artifacts of a technology. It may also
mean the physical components of a computer
system, in the form of computer hardware.
A cultural artifact is a human-made object which
gives information about the culture of its
creator and users. The artifact may change over
time in what it represents, how it appears and
how and why it is used as the culture changes
over time.
2
What is Application Software?
Application software is a subclass of computer
software that employs the capabilities of a
computer directly and thoroughly to a task that
the user wishes to perform.
What is System Software?
System software is any computer software which
manages and controls computer hardware so that
application software can perform a task
What is Middleware?
Middleware is the enabling technology of
enterprise application integration. It describes
a piece of software that connects two or more
software applications, allowing them to exchange
data.
3
An electrical bulb is an application
software. Electric power generation plant is a
system software.
System software which is involved in integrating
a computer's various capabilities, but typically
does not directly apply them in the performance
of tasks that benefit the user.
What is computer programme?
A sequence of instructions written in a language
that can be understood by the computer is called
a computer programme.
The software development is continuous process,
where as hardware is a one time investment.
4
Relationship between hardware to users.
Users
Application Software
System Software
Hardware
Examples of Application Software
Word Processing, Spreadsheets, Database
Management Software Graphics, multimedia,
presentation software
5
Service or Utility Software
File defragementation, Data compression Backup
software, data recovery software Antivirus
utility, screen savers.
System Software
Translators Compilers, Assemblers,
Interpreters Operating system.
Operating system carries out variety of functions
Scheduling and loading, Resource management
(memory,devices), Handling errors, CPU time
management, Memory Management, communication with
users.
6
Types of Operating Systems
Batch Processing
- is known as serial, sequential, off line or
stacked job processing.
- Reduces the idle time of a computer system
because transition from one job to another does
not require operator intervention.
It allows sharing of computer resources among
many users and programs,
- Does not allows the priority scheduling.
Batch processing has been associated with
mainframe computers since the earliest days of
electronic computing in 1950s
Batch processing has grown beyond its mainframe
origins, and is now frequently used in UNIX
environments and Microsoft Windows too.
7
Types of Operating Systems
Multi-Tasking
In the case of a computer with a single CPU, only
one task is said to be running at any point in
time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing
instructions for that task.
Multitasking solves the problem by scheduling
which task may be the one running at any given
time, and when another waiting task gets a turn.
The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to
another one is called a context switch.
Even on computers with more than one CPU,
multitasking allows many more tasks to be run
than there are CPUs.
8
Types of Operating Systems
Multi-Processing
- Two or more independent processors are linked
together in a coordinated system and instructions
from different and independent programs can be
processed at the same instant in time by the
processors.
- Many complex operations can be performed at the
same time.
- CPU can function on complementary units to
provide data and control for one another.
- Is used for major control applications such as
railroad control or airlines management.
9
Types of Operating Systems
Multi Programming
- Is executing two or more different and
independent programs by the same computer.
- Permits more than one job to utilize the CPU
time at any moment using scheduling technique.
- The OS picks up any of the programs as
scheduled and starts execution.
Multiprogramming doesn't give any guarantee that
a program will run in a timely manner.
Indeed, the very first program may very well run
for hours without needing access to a peripheral
- Is optimize the resource utilization of a
computer system and supports multiple users.
10
Types of Operating Systems
Multi-Threading
As multitasking greatly improved the throughput
of computers, programmers started to implement
applications as sets of cooperating processes
(e.g. one process gathering input data, one
process processing input data, one process
writing out results on disk.)
Threads were born from the idea that the most
efficient way for cooperating processes to
exchange data would be to share their entire
memory space
Thus, threads are basically processes that run in
the same memory context.
Threads are described as lightweight because
switching between threads does not involve
changing the memory context.
11
Types of Operating Systems
Multi-Threading
While threads are scheduled preemptively, some
operating systems provide a variant to threads,
named fibers, that are scheduled cooperatively
Fibers are even more lightweight than threads
Parallel processing
The simultaneous use of more than one CPU to
execute a program. Ideally, parallel processing
makes a program run faster because there are more
engines (CPUs) running it.
separate CPUs can execute different portions
without interfering with each other.
12
Types of Operating Systems
Online processing
It is a system that operates in an interactive
mode with quick response time.
On line processing systems perform random and
rapid input of transactions and provide immediate
access to the records.
Real time processing
operational deadlines from event to system
response
By contrast, a non-real-time system is one for
which there is no deadline, even if fast response
or high performance is desired or even preferred
The anti-lock brakes on a car are a simple
example of a real-time computing system
13
(No Transcript)
14
Virus and Anti-virus
Virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can
copy itself and infect a computer without
permission or knowledge of the user.
The original virus may modify the copies, or the
copies may modify themselves
A virus can only spread from one computer to
another when its host is taken to the uninfected
computer
Viruses are sometimes confused with computer
worms and Trojan horses
A computer worm is a self-replicating computer
program.
15
Virus and Anti-virus
Virus
Worms almost always cause harm to the network, if
only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses
almost always corrupt or modify files on a
targeted computer.
Bandwidth (computing) a rate of data transfer,
or bit rate, measured in bits per second
a Trojan horse, also known as a trojan, is
malware that appears to perform a desirable
function but in fact performs undisclosed
malicious functions. Therefore, a computer worm
or virus may be a Trojan horse.
In general, a worm does not actually harm either
the system's hardware or software.
16
Virus and Anti-virus
Non-residents Virus
Nonresident viruses can be thought of as
consisting of a finder module and a replication
module. The finder module is responsible for
finding new files to infect. For each new
executable file the finder module encounters, it
calls the replication module to infect that file.
Residents Virus
The virus loads the replication module into
memory when it is executed and ensures that this
module is executed each time the operating system
is called to perform a certain operation
In this case, the virus infects every suitable
program that is executed on the computer.
17
Virus and Anti-virus
Anti-Virus
Antivirus software are computer programs that
attempt to identify, neutralize or eliminate
malicious software
Most modern antivirus software is now designed to
combat a wide range of threats, including worms,
phishing attacks, rootkits, trojan horses and
other malware
In computing, phishing is the criminally
fraudulent process of attempting to acquire
sensitive information such as usernames,
passwords and credit card details, by
masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an
electronic communication.
18
Virus and Anti-virus
Anti-Virus
A rootkit is a program (or combination of several
programs) designed to take fundamental control
(in Unix terms "root" access, in Windows
"Administrator" access) of a computer system,
without authorization by the system's owners and
legitimate managers
Antivirus software typically uses two different
approaches to identify virus 1. examining
(scanning) files to look for known viruses
matching definitions in a virus dictionary, and
2. identifying suspicious behavior from any
computer program which might indicate infection
19
Virus and Anti-virus
Anti-Virus
The suspicious behavior approach, by contrast,
doesn't attempt to identify known viruses, but
instead monitors the behavior of all programs.
If one program tries to write data to an
executable program, for example, the antivirus
software can flag this suspicious behavior, alert
a user, and ask what to do.
Unlike the dictionary approach, the suspicious
behavior approach therefore provides protection
against brand-new viruses that do not yet exist
in any virus dictionaries
20
Virus and Anti-virus
Other approaches Some antivirus software use
other types of heuristic analysis. For example,
it could try to emulate the beginning of the code
of each new executable that the system invokes
before transferring control to that executable.
If the program seems to use self-modifying code
or otherwise appears as a virus However, this
method could result in a lot of false
positives. Yet another detection method involves
using a sandbox. A sandbox emulates the operating
system and runs the executable in this
simulation. After the program has terminated,
software analyzes the sandbox for any changes
which might indicate a virus. Also this method
may fail as viruses can be nondeterministic so
it will be impossible to detect it from one
run. Some virus scanners can also warn a user if
a file is likely to contain a virus based on the
file type.
21
Virus and Anti-virus
Computers Security The computers security starts
with a good virus scanner and never ends.
Typical approaches to improving computer security
can include the following 1. Physically limit
access to computers to only those who will not
compromise security. 2. Hardware mechanisms that
impose rules on computer programs, thus avoiding
depending on computer programs for computer
security. 3. Operating system mechanisms that
impose rules on programs to avoid trusting
computer programs.
A firewall is a device or set of devices
configured to permit, deny, encrypt, decrypt, or
proxy all computer traffic between different
security domains based upon a set of rules and
other criteria.
22
Machine and high level languages
Programming languages are said to be lower or
higher, depending on whether they are closer to
the language the computer itself uses or to the
language that people use.

• Here we will consider five levels (or
  generations) of languages
• Machine languages/1st generations
• Assembly languages / 2nd generations
• Procedural languages / 3rd generations
• Problem-oriented / 4th generations
• Natural languages / 5th generations

The closer the level is to human speech, the more
it is described as a user friendly language.
23
Machine and high level languages
Machine languages
Computers are working two-state system, that is,
on/off or yes/no.
In the early days of computers, with machines as
the ENIAC, which used vacuum tubes, one could
actually see the tubes lit up or unlit (dark),
corresponding to the 1/0 binary stat the switch
was either on or off.
In addition, in those early days there was no
such thing as software. There was only hardware
with electrical on/off switches.
Whenever a program was to be run, all the
switches had to be set sometimes as many as
6,000 switches for a single program. Then next
program the switches had to be reset, a process
that might take weeks.
24
Machine and high level languages
Machine languages
Advantage execution is very fast and efficient
because the computer can accept the machine code
as it is.

• Disadvantage
• there is no standard machine language
• The language are machine dependent.

Assembly languages
Also called symbolic language or abbreviated or
mnemonic code. Code are easily memorized
replacing 0s and 1s of machine language.
Actually, assembly language do not replace
machine languages.
25
Machine and high level languages
Assembly languages
The assembly languages code is very similar in
form to machine language.
In fact, the first assembly languages had a
one-to-one correspondence. That is, 20 assembly
statements would be translated into 20 machine
statements.
Advantage 1. standardized and easier to use
than machine language. 2. Easier to debug because
programs locate and identify syntax errors. 3.
Operate very efficiently but not as efficient as
the machine language.

• Disadvantage
• Still complex to code.
• Again machine dependent.
• Usually very long.

26
Machine and high level languages
High level languages
Assisted programmers by reducing further the
number of computer operation details they had to
specify, so that concentrate more on the logic
needed to solve the problem.
The term "high-level language" does not imply
that the language is always superior to low-level
programming languages - in fact, in terms of the
depth of knowledge of how computers work required
to productively program in a given language, the
inverse may be true.
high-level languages make complex programming
simpler, while low-level languages tend to
produce more efficient code
For this reason, code which needs to run
particularly quickly and efficiently may be
written in a lower-level language, even if a
higher-level language would make the coding
easier.
27
Machine and high level languages
Types of High level languages

• Procedural-oriented language
• Problem-oriented language (BASIC, Pascal)
• Natural language

In a procedural-based programming language, a
programmer writes out instructions that are
followed by a computer from start to finish.
Example c, c, Basic, COBOL
Non procedural also called "declarative
language," users concentrate on defining the
input and output rather than the program steps
required in a procedural language such as C,
COBOL. Query languages, report writers,
interactive database programs, spreadsheets and
application generators are examples of
non-procedural languages.
28
MS DOS and Window OS
MS DOS
MSDOS is a single user operating system and
therefore all the resources are available to this
user.

• DOS contains three files
• IO.SYS,
• MSDOS.SYS
• Command.com

• IO.SYS
• a) It verifies the input output devices and
  drivers.
• b) loads the file MSDOS.SYS from the hard
  disk into memory.

2. MSDOS.SYS it is also called DOS
Kernel. it is a link between BIOS and users
application programs.
29
MS DOS and Window OS
MS DOS

• MSDOS has four important functions as
• Process Control
• Memory management
• Application Program Interface (API)
• File Management System (FMS)

Process Control Does the management of the
program that is being executed Loads program into
the memory and initiates execution of loaded
program. It also recovers the system files when
program execution is terminated in between.
30
MS DOS and Window OS
Memory Management
Allocates the memory to different application
programs. It also does file allocation according
to memory demand.
Application Program Interface Works like an
intelligent agent so that every program is
allotted to the various hardware devices.
File management system Is the largest portion of
the MSDOS.SYS. It can read, write display and
print the files. It can rename, copy and remove
the files.
31
MS DOS and Window OS
Command.com
Has two portions as a) Resident portion.
b) Transient portion.
Resident portion Contains internal commands in
it. System can only be interrupted by using
CtrlC in case of any execution error for job
termination. It displays the error message like
Bad command or file name
Abort, Retry, Ignore? It contains code required
to reload the transient portion (external
command) of command.com.
32
MS DOS and Window OS
Transient portion It is the temporary portion of
command.com. Any application program has shortage
of memory space, then transient portion is erased
and memory space is made available to application
program. When an application program is not in
use or terminated, then it reload the erased
portion. It displays dos prompt like A/gt, B/gt.
Booting Can be defined loading of set of
programs from the ROM into RAM so that it creates
an environment for the execution of commands or
further processing. The loadable files are
IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, Command.com
33
MS DOS and Window OS
While Booting ROM startup routines set up
addresses of ROM-BIOS routines Interrupt Vector
Table (IVT) at the low end of memory. RAM
test ROM startup routines check for standard and
non-standard equipment attached to computer. ROM
startup routines reads from BIOS. For
example, First attempt of booting from A/gt then
C/gt
Types of Booting Cold Booting when we switched
on. Slow in process. Hot Booting when we press
Reset button. Faster than cold booting because it
will not restart computer instead reload the
files.
34
MS DOS and Window OS
Internal Commands CLS DATE TIME VOLUME TIME VER CO
PYCON TYPE REN DEL MD CD RD PATH COPY PROMPT DIR
DIR/P DIR/W DIR/S DIR with wildcard(,?)
External Commands EDIT to edit existing
file. ATTRIB to change the attributes of
files example. R read only, -R remove read
only H to hide -H to remove hide
attribute BACKUP create a copy to destination
path RESTORE copy the files in original
path CHKDSK DISKCOPY DELTREE FORMAT FDISK MOVE PRI
NT UNDELETE
35
Database Management Systems
Information is the backbone of any
organization. What is information? Information
is nothing but refined data, data that have been
put into a meaningful and useful context and
communicated to a recipient who used it to make
decisions.

• Quality of Information
• Accuracy
• means that information is free from mistakes and
  errors
• Means that information is free from bias.
• Manipulated information is worse than no
  information.

36
Database Management Systems

• Quality of Information
• Timeliness
• Means that getting the information to the
  recipients within the needed time frame.
• Breaking news
• Relevancy
• Means the use of a piece of information for a
  particular person.
• Subjective matter.
• What is Database?
• A database consists of data, relationships,
  constraints and schema.
• Data are binary computer representations of
  stored logical entities.

37
Database Management Systems

• Relationships represent a correspondence between
  the various data elements.
• Constraints are predicates that define the
  correct database states where the scheme
  describes the organization of data and
  relationships within the database
• The schema defines the various views of the
  database for database management system
  components use and for applications security.

• Database
• A collection of data designed to be used by
  different people is called database.
• The data are stored in such a fashion that they
  are independent of the programs of people using
  the data.

38
Database Management Systems

• Why integrated database
• Data redundancyeach department has its own
  private files resulting storage space is wasted.
  Hence the redundancy can be controlled.
• Data inconsistencyif a database is updated and
  not reflected in other department becomes data
  inconsistency.
• Integritymeans that the data in the database is
  accurate.
• Conflicting requirementsknowing the overall
  requirements as opposed to the individual
  requirement, the database can be structured to
  provide an overall service that is best for the
  organization

39
Database Management Systems

• Characteristics of data in a database
• Shareddata in a database are shared among
  different users and applications.
• Persistencethe data can live beyond the scope of
  the process that created it.
• Validity data should be correct with respect to
  the real world.
• Security data should be protected from
  unauthorized access.
• Independentthe three levels in the schema
  (internal, conceptual and external) should be
  independent of each other so that the changes in
  the schema at one level should not affect the
  other levels.

40
Database Management Systems

• Database Management System
• A database management system (DBMS) is a software
  that provides services for accessing a database,
  while maintaining all the required feature of the
  data.

• Transaction processing
• Is a sequence is database operations that
  represents a logical unit of work. It access a
  database and transforms it from one state to
  another.
• It may be update, delete, modify etc.,

• Concurrency management
• Is the database management activity of
  coordinating the actions of database manipulation
  process that operate concurrently, access shared
  data and can potentially interfere with each
  other.

41
Database Management Systems

• Recovery
• Recovery mechanisms of a DBMS make sure that the
  database is returned to a consistent state after
  a transaction fails or aborts.
• Recovery is very much related to concurrency in
  the sense that the more the concurrency, the more
  is the chance of an aborted transaction can
  affecting many other transactions.

• security
• The level of access for each user and the
  operations that each user can perform on the data
  will be monitored and controlled by the DBMS
  depending on the access privileges of the users.

• Language interface
• Provides the definition and manipulation of the
  data in the database. Ex DDL, DML

42
Types of Database Management Systems

• Hierarchical Model
• Oldest database models (1950).
• The hierarchical model assumes that a tree
  structure is the most frequently occurring
  relationship.
• This mislead restrictive view of relationships.

• Network Model
• Replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph thus
  allowing more general connections among the
  nodes.
• A strict hierarchical arrangement is not possible
  when an employee works for two departments, then
  the tree will become graph.
• In hierarchical model we have to place a data
  simultaneously in two location in the list. In
  network we can connect.

43
Types of Database Management Systems

• Relational Model
• The relational model uses tables to organize the
  data elements. Each table corresponds to an
  application entity, and each row represents an
  instance of that entity.
• For example , book database is an entity,
• a book detail is an instance.

• Object-oriented Model
• OOM represents an entity as a class.
• A class represents both object attributes as well
  as the behavior of the entity.
• For example, a book class will have not only the
  book attributes (ISBN, Tile, Price) but also
  procedure that imitate actions expected
  (updateprice()) of a book.

44
Levels of database services

• Physical Level
• At the lowest level, certain physical components
  organize and store the raw data.
• In addition to hardware, these components include
  control structures that track the location and
  format of the stored data elements.
• Example Buffer
• The physical layer typically has parameters that
  can be tuned for optimal performance under the
  access pattern of an applications.
• However in case of relation, object-oriented
  database models, the tuning task is usually left
  to the DBMS.

45
Levels of database services

• Conceptual Level
• Is isolating the data storage details to the
  physical level of DBMS, provides a convenient
  environment.
• The application objects exist at this level.Ex.,
  Tables, views, triggers
• If the underlying hardware and OS changes, the
  consequences limited to the interface between the
  physical and conceptual layer.
• For example, OS is changed from UNIX to window, a
  new version of DBMS might be necessary.

46
Levels of database services

• External Level
• Outer most layer
• Different type of external views can use the same
  conceptual view to satisfy the differing needs of
  the different users.
• The decoupling of the external and conceptual
  level is called logical data independence.

• Database Design
• A data base about a person may be consists of
• Photograph, fingerprint, retina images
• Name, age, sex, height, weight, address
• Telephone number, blood, caste, religion, etc.,
• Now the question is how much information about an
  entity should be collected.

47
Database Design

• Data Normalization
• Normalization is the process of building database
  structures to store data.
• Data normalization is a corner stone of a
  relational theory.
• The different steps involved in data
  normalization are called the normal forms.
• Each normal form builds upon the last version.

• Keys
• A key uniquely identifies a row in a table.

• Intelligent Keys
• An intelligent key is based upon data values such
  as a date, price, name.

• Non-Intelligent Keys
• Is completely arbitrary, having no function or
  meaning other than identification or a row.

48
Database Design

• Intelligent Keys
• Is problematic because the key value must be
  changed to reflect changing data values.
• For example, price is changed, all related tables
  must be updated every time the key is updated.

• Primary Keys
• Is column in the table whose purpose is to
  uniquely identify records from the same table.

• Foreign Keys
• A foreign key is a column in a table that
  uniquely identifies the records from a different
  table.
• or
• The foreign key identifies a column or a set of
  columns in one (referencing) table that refers to
  a column or set of columns in another
  (referenced) table

49
Relationship

• One-to-one
• 1 to 1 relationships are rare, because data
  elements related in this way are normally placed
  in the same table

• One-to-many
• When one data item can be linked to 0, 1 or many
  other data items, you are dealing with a
  one-to-many relationship
• The same applies to the relationship that exists
  between a woman and her children. A woman can
  have 0, 1 or many children and each child has one
  woman as its mother.

50
Relationship

• Many-to-many
• The many-to-many relationship is a relationship
  where multiple rows from table A can correspond
  to multiple rows in table B.
• An example of such a relationship is a school
  where teachers teach students. In most schools
  each teacher can teach multiple students and each
  student can be taught by multiple teachers.
• This relationships are problematic.
• Normally this relationship expresses using
  intersection tables.
• An intersection table contains two or more
  foreign keys, relating the primary key values of
  two or more tables to each other.
• The role of an intersection table is to convert
  many to many into one-to-many.

51
Normalization

• The guidelines for proper relational database
  design are laid out in the relational model. They
  are grouped into 5 groups called "normal forms".
• The first normal form represents the lowest form
  of database normalization, the fifth represents
  the highest form of database normalization.
• These normal forms are guidelines for good
  database design.
• You are not obliged to adhere to all five normal
  forms when designing a database.
• Nevertheless, you are advised to normalize you
  database to some extent, because normalization
  has some significant advantages in terms of the
  efficiency and maintainability of your database.

52
Normalization

• Why normalization
• Complex queries can be done using simple SQL
  commands.
• Data Integrity.data integrity means that the
  data values in the database are correct and
  consistent.
• Avoids data redundant
• Scalability. Scalability is the ability to meet
  with future growth demands

53
Normalization
The first normal form (1NF) A database table is a
representation of an "entity" in the system you
are building. Examples of entities are order,
customer, contact moment, product, etc. Each row
in the database table represents one occurrence
of an entity. For example in a customer table
each row will contain information about 1
customer. Each table has a primary key,
consisting of the smallest possible number of
fields. Atomicity each field contains one
value. An adres for example, would ideally be
stored in three separate fields number, street,
city.
54
Normalization

• The second normal form (2NF)
• The second normal deals with data redundancy. The
  rules comprised in the second normal form are as
  follows.
• The database fullfills all the requirements of
  the first normal form
• All non-primary-key fields in a table must be
  fully dependent on the entire primary key of the
  table

• The third normal form (3NF)
• Already meet the requirements of both 1NF and 2NF
  
• Remove columns that are not fully dependent upon
  the primary key.

55
Normalization
For example, we will normalize following
fields Order Number Customer Number Unit Price
Quantity Total Remember, our first requirement
is that the table must satisfy the requirements
of 1NF and 2NF. Are there any duplicative
columns? No. Do we have a primary key? Yes,
the order number. Therefore, we satisfy the
requirements of 1NF. Are there any subsets of
data that apply to multiple rows? No, so we also
satisfy the requirements of 2NF.
56
Normalization
Now, are all of the columns fully dependent upon
the primary key? The customer number varies with
the order number and it doesn't appear to depend
upon any of the other fields. What about the
unit price? This field could be dependent upon
the customer number in a situation where we
charged each customer a set price. However,
looking at the data above, it appears we
sometimes charge the same customer different
prices. Therefore, the unit price is fully
dependent upon the order number. The quantity
of items also varies from order to order, so
we're OK there.
57
What about the total? It looks like we might be
in trouble here. The total can be derived by
multiplying the unit price by the quantity,
therefore it is not fully dependent upon the
primary key. We must remove it from the table to
comply with the third normal form. Perhaps we use
the following attributes Order number Customer
number Unit price Quantity Now our table is in
3NF. But you might ask, what about total? This is
a derived field and it is best not to store it in
the database at all. We can compute it.