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Western CivilizationChapter 20

• The Industrial Transformation of Europe
• 1750-1850

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The Industrial Revolution

• Began in Britain in 1764
• Later spread to other western nations
• Changed the way goods were produced
• Factories powered by steam and operated by
  organized groups of people became the norm
• This shift in production also changed the way in
  which societies were organized
• Rural society based on agriculture changed to an
  urban culture based on manufacturing
• It affected family and government

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Great Britain

• Was experiencing prosperity in 18th century
• Had expanded its markets to include other
  countries, its colonies, and its growing
  population at home
• Had a steady supply of raw materials
• Amassed investment capital
• Had a steady supply of skilled and unskilled
  labor
• Had good transportation RRs, canals, roads,
  bridges, merchant marine

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• Had few government restrictions
• Fostered inventors and inventions
• These conditions led to increased production and
  trade and made Great Britain the early leader in
  the Industrial Revolution
• It was still 1 in the mid-19th century

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• During the 18th century, Continental Europe was
  immersed in war or revolution
• The conditions were not favorable for the start
  of industry
• Around 1830 the Industrial Revolution spread more
  quickly throughout Europe
• First to Belgium
• Then to France, Germany, and the United States
• Later to other European nations

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• Most nations copied Britain and their inventions
  in the early years
• Set up railways
• Governments subsidized some industries
• Placed tariffs on imported goods
• By the end of the 19th century, there was more
  equal competition among nations

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• Before factories, people in the countryside found
  they could supplement their incomes through their
  skills of spinning and weaving
• They would buy raw materials and then make cloth
  which they sold to merchants in the towns and
  cities
• Peasants would do this during agricultural slow
  times
• It was called Cottage Industry

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• After 1750, more and more people were looking for
  work
• So cottage industry developed into the
  Putting-Out System
• Entrepreneurs purchased the raw materials
• They then put them out to peasant households for
  manufacture
• The finished product was returned to the
  capitalist who would sell the cloth for a profit
• The putting-out system required little capital or
  skill and paid peasants low yet needed wages

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• The putting-out system seemed to dominate many
  rural families lives
• Then it came to dominate whole regions
• Families began keeping only a small garden and
  concentrated on making cloth
• However, without farm wages it was difficult to
  survive on piecework wages
• Some took out loans to survive and then worked
  more and more hours at repetitive tasks to earn
  more money

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• The industry grew
• Now for a person to set himself up with a job,
  all he needed was a loom instead of a piece of
  land
• They could then afford to marry at a younger age,
  have children, and put them to work making cloth
• This was a labor-intensive industry
• Because there was available labor, new methods of
  production were not sought

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Industrial Revolution in Europe

• 1750-1850, the industrial revolution transformed
  Britains predominantly agricultural workforce
  into a predominantly industrial workforce
• Water and coal-driven machinery supplied the
  energy and increased productivity
• One woman in 1812 could spin as much thread as
  200 women had in 1770
• This productivity caused the economy of Britain
  to grow and better support its growing population

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• Innovation after innovation brought improvements
  and better techniques that could increase
  production while improving quality
• Steam engines

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• Smelting of iron with coke

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• Spinning jenny

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• These plus other inventions gave Britain a
  manufacturing economy by 1850
• In 1850, fewer than 25 were still in agriculture
• In 1850, nearly 60 were in industry, trade, and
  transportation

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Britain First

• The industrial revolution occurred in Britain
  first in certain regions only
• Conditions in Britain seemed quite favorable for
  industry
• Water both protected the island nation from
  attack and allowed its merchants to transport
  goods within the country easily
• Canals were built since the 1760s
• By 18th century, no one in England lived more
  than 30 miles from navigable waters
• Water transport was a cheap way to transport goods

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• Abundance of minerals
• Coal used as fuel for centuries
• Abundant
• Used in great quantities
• Large seams of it located near seams of iron and
  both near transportation routes
• The minerals, fuel, and transport could be found
  in the same area, saving money

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• Britain had markets at home and overseas and both
  demanded goods
• Colonies were used for a source of raw materials
• Britains export trade tripled during the 18th
  century, sending out over a million tons of cargo
• Shipping expanded
• Set up a reliable banking system, the Bank of
  England

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Minerals and Metals

• Coal was the black gold of the 18th century
  because it ran the machines
• Britain had very rich coal areas
• If landowners discovered coal on their land, they
  stopped farming and turned to mining
• Landowners would sink a shaft, build roads, erect
  a wind machine, and send miners into pits.
• Miners paid according to what each produced
• But there were problems

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Problems with Mining

• Surface seams were quickly used up
• Had to go deeper
• Men dug the coal out
• Women and children hauled it to the shaft and
  cleared away other debris from the coal
• But there were cave-ins
• There were ventilation and lighting problems
• They used candles for light, but pits contained
  flammable gases
• There were explosions

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• Water drainage was the biggest problem
• Theyd hit ground water
• Pits filled quickly
• Tried to carry water out in skin lined buckets
  by women and children
• Then primitive pumps came along using horses
• 1709, Thomas Newcomen introduced his steam-driven
  pump to alleviate the water problem
• Coal production increased greatly
• From 1700-1830, production increased 10 times

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Newcomen Steam Pump
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• The iron industry began to demand coal
• It had formerly used wood for fuel to heat the
  furnaces
• 1709, Abraham Darby developed smelting iron ore
  with coke (coal with its gases burned off)
• This iron coking greatly reduced the cost of fuel
  in the iron industry
• It also introduced its own impurities to the iron

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• Improvement came with James Watts improved steam
  engine in 1775
• It allowed iron smelting and forging to be
  conducted at much higher temperatures

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• Then Henry Cort introduced a puddling process in
  the 1780s
• Iron was smelted into puddles and stirred with
  rods
• This brought gaseous carbon to the surface and
  was burned off
• This left behind pure iron
• It was then rolled into sheets
• He was able to consolidate the smelting, forging,
  and finishing industries into a single process
  -- increasing productivity dramatically by 15
  times what it had been

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Cotton is King

• Woolen cloth had dominated British trade for
  centuries
• It was labor intensive
• It took 4 female spinners to provide materials
  for 1 male weaver
• During the 17th century new materials came on the
  market linen, silk, and cotton (from India)
• Cotton came to replace wool as the staple of the
  textile industry in Britain

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• The putting out system helped to expand the
  production of cotton cloth, but only new
  technological innovations allowed English
  producers to compete successfully with Indian
  exports
• John Kays flying shuttle, invented in the 1730s,
  allowed weavers to work alone instead of in pairs

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• James Hargreaves spinning jenny allowed multiple
  threads to be spun simultaneously
• It was a wooden frame with a number of spindles
  around which thread was drawn by means of a
  hand-turned wheel
• Jennies replaced spinning wheels and it spun
  cotton in great quantities
• It was not strong enough for the warp of the loom

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James Hargreaves
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Jenny
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• Richard Arkwright created the water frame in1769
• This produced thread strong enough for the warp
  of the loom
• It stretched the cotton before spinning

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• Samuel Crompton created the mule which combined
  the jenny with the water frame
• could be used in homes
• were increasingly used in factories
• became larger and more expensive

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• The idea of the factory was pioneered by Richard
  Arkwright in 1769
• Factories allowed capitalists to protect trade
  secrets
• Factories were originally called Safe Boxes
• Workers were sworn to secrecy
• There was strict supervision of the work force
  and the quality of the work
• Patents were taken out on machinery
• Factories were at first located in rural villages
• Textile production was moved to bigger mill towns
• By 1850, nearly 500,000 worked in the cotton
  industry

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• Spinning was done by men using heavy machinery
• Weaving was done by women
• Cotton became Britains chief export
• 40 of all exports were cotton textiles
• Raw cotton was gotten from the Mediterranean and
  from the U. S. especially after 1794 with Eli
  Whitneys cotton gin

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The Iron Horse

• The first part of the Industrial Revolution had
  to do with the mass production of goods
• Consumers wanted the products faster than they
  could be delivered
• Industrialists wanted their raw materials and
  fuel quicker as well
• This need became the driving force behind a new
  form of transportation The Iron Horse

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• Early railroads had carts on tracks pulled by
  horses in the mines
• They hauled coal from seam to the dock
• By 1800, British mines had 300 miles of rail
• However, when Watts patent on the steam engine
  was up, other inventors adapted this engine to
  perform many tasks
• Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) first experimented
  with it to produce a steam driven carriage

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• Then George Stephenson (1781-1848) made 2 other
  improvements
• made the wheels grooved and the rails smooth (the
  opposite of what it had been)
• and increased the steam pressure in the boiler of
  the engine
• He worked to standardize the gauge of the track.
  Hence, Stephenson has been called the Father of
  the Modern Railroad

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• Stephensons first experiment, called the Rocket,
  outran a horse and pulled a load 3 times its
  weight
• The first railway was intended to haul coal and
  bulk goods
• The railway quickly came to carry more human
  passengers than freight
• Owners made more money transporting passengers
  than freight until the 1850s

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Rocket
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• Financed by private individuals, the railway
  boom
• decreased the cost of coal
• helped modernize the iron and steel industries
  because of increased demand for rails and engines
• created a high demand for labor
• set up to connect existing industries with
  markets
• Cheap transport allowed all social classes to
  travel. It also promoted a shared sense of
  national identity because people were no longer
  isolated from one another

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Entrepreneurs and Managers

• Changes in the organization of industry combined
  with new technological innovations to
  revolutionize the British economy
• Industrialists played a dual role entrepreneur
  and manager
• As entrepreneur, they owned the workplace,
  machinery, and the raw materials
• They kept investing their money in the business
  and they knew how to market their goods
• There were some bankruptcies

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• As managers, they organized the workplace to be
  ever more efficient
• They also disciplined employees and assigned them
  specialized, repetitive jobs
• The careers of Josiah Wedgewood and Robert Owen
  are examples of successful industrialists in
  Britain

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Josiah Wedgewood

• grew up working in pottery
• had deformed leg that made it difficult for him
  to turn the wheel
• made improvements to the wheel through trial and
  error
• developed new mixtures of clay and glazes
• hated disorder, waste, poor quality, and slow
  output, so had workers specialize in certain
  tasks some threw pots on the wheel, some painted
  designs, some glazed
• this pottery was highly prized

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Robert Owen

• held many jobs in trade and in the cotton
  industry
• became manager of a cotton mill at age 19
• successfully increased the output of his 500
  workers
• entered into a partnership in1816 to purchase the
  New Lanark Mill in Scotland

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• He felt to improve the quality of the work, you
  must improve the quality of the workplace
• got new machinery
• reduced working hours
• had monitoring system to check on theft
• prohibited children under age 10 from working
• all other children had a 10-hour day

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• Outside the workplace
• had a high quality company-run store
• used the profits to set up schools for village
  children
• schools took all children over the age of 1 year,
  so women could work in the factory and children
  could get an education
• had old-age and disability pensions funded by
  mandatory worker contributions
• taverns close
• fines for drunkenness and sexual abuses
• He set up a system where the community regulated
  itself. It was a utopia and a model for others

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Wages of Progress

• Industrialization produced great wealth and great
  distress in Britain
• Factory production and urbanization provoked a
  social reform movement that regulated child
  labor, housing, and sanitation
• Per capita income increased 75 between 1801 and
  1851
• But there were cyclical trade depressions,
  unequal distribution of wealth, overcrowded
  cities, and changes in family life with their
  ways of budgeting that kept many in debt and tied
  to their jobs

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The Industrialization of a Continent

• Continental European nations learned from the
  example of Britains industrial transformation,
  the British Miracle
• They did not do everything in the same exact way
  as the British
• The British way only suited the coal-rich areas
  of Belgium and the German Rhineland
• All of Europe learned from Britain and were
  encouraged by their governments
• Continental industrialists enjoyed high tariffs
  that protected their goods from British
  competition

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Industrialization Without Revolution

• France
• French industrialization was focused on home
  markets rather than on those abroad, even though
  overseas markets wanted French goods, too
• They benefitted from British inventions and then
  began producing luxury items of high quality and
  not in the same amounts as British mass-produced
  goods
• So the scarcity of French goods kept prices high
  and profits high

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• While the French had only moderate population
  growth as compared to Britain, French peasants
  were able to maintain their traditional
  agricultural methods ( less pressure to change )
• They produced enough food to feed the nation
  while holding on to their rural existence
• So French industry grew slowly and it was
  regional rather than national
• Industry on a small scale made it harder for
  industrialists to get money for fast growth and
  expensive machinery
• By 1820, only 65 French factories were powered by
  the steam engine

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• Sustained growth began around 1850 with the
  construction of a national railway which helped
  to create a national market
• France slowly retreated from world trade
• couldnt compete with Britain and Germany
• withdrew into themselves
• internal market was still quite strong
• domestic commodities were protected by tariffs on
  imported goods

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• Because of slow growth of French industry, they
  were able to avoid many of the problems Britain
  had encountered
• overpopulation
• trade wars
• quick urbanization with its problems of
  overcrowding, sanitation, and disease

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Industrialization and Union

• Germany
• The German Empires many political divisions with
  their local loyalties and local regulations
  hindered quick industrial growth
• One region didnt want to trade with another and
  this hurt their economies
• Serfdom and traditional agricultural techniques
  were still used in the East
• In the West, free peasants tilled the lands of
  western Germany, owned or leased

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• Restrictions placed on peasants in certain areas
  of Germany primarily in the East made getting
  a workforce together for industry more difficult
• The biggest manufactured good exported was linen
  from Saxony and Silesia
• used the putting-out system
• had some factory spinning
• Most factories in Germany were powered by water
  and located in the mountains where they could use
  the rushing water from mountain streams

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• In the 1840s, there were 22 steam-driven spinning
  mills using British machines and technicians
• Germany wasnt heavily involved in the world
  market and provincial restrictions hurt the home
  market, keeping it from rapid expansion
• Internal customs duties also hindered internal
  trade expansion

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• But as German population grew, the internal
  domestic market grew
• Between 1815 and 1865, the population grew by 60
  to 36 million
• So Prussians resolved to make a unified trading
  zone by creating a series of alliances with
  smaller states known as the Zollverein (1834), a
  customs union in which participating states
  adopted Prussian customs regulations

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• This allowed goods to flow more freely in Prussia
  and surrounding states
• Then Germans went to England and the British went
  to Germany to learn and to teach
• The Zollverein then laid the groundwork for the
  railroads heavily financed by the state
• The presence of the railroad was the cause of
  industrialization, like in France
• Germany imported engines and adopted standard
  gauge rail from Great Britain
• It served to unite German markets

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• Not all were happy with mechanization
• Artisans organized for collective, sometimes
  violent action
• 1811 and 1812, British hand weavers supposedly
  led by the mythical General Ned Ludd smashed
  machines or threatened to do so. They called
  themselves Luddites
• 1830s Germany, weavers smashed machines
• Lyon, France 1831, 1834, workers led an uprising
  demanding a fair price for piece-work
• Labor agitation increased in Europe in 1840s
  leading to major strikes