Design Principles 1 Sommerville Chapters 10, 11

1
Design Principles 1 Sommerville - Chapters 10,
11

• Lecture to cover following-
• Architectural Design
• Distributed Systems Architectures

2
Architectural Design

• Establishing the overall structure of a software
  system
• Issues
• System structuring
• Control models
• Modular decomposition
• Domain-specific architectures

3
Software Architecture

• The design process for identifying the
  sub-systems making up a system and the framework
  for sub-system control and communication is
  architectural design
• The output of this design process is a
  description of the software architecture

4
Architectural Design

• An early stage of the system design process
• Represents the link between specification and
  design processes
• Often carried out in parallel with some
  specification activities
• It involves identifying major system components
  and their communications

5
Advantages of Explicit Architecture

• Stakeholder communication
• Architecture may be used as a focus of discussion
  by system stakeholders
• System analysis
• Means that analysis of whether the system can
  meet its non-functional requirements is possible
• Large-scale reuse
• The architecture may be reusable across a range
  of systems

6
Architectural Design Process

• System structuring
• The system is decomposed into several principal
  sub-systems and communications between these
  sub-systems are identified
• Control modelling
• A model of the control relationships between the
  different parts of the system is established
• Modular decomposition
• The identified sub-systems are decomposed into
  modules

7
Sub-systems and Modules

• A sub-system is a system in its own right whose
  operation is independent of the services provided
  by other sub-systems.
• A module is a system component that provides
  services to other components but would not
  normally be considered as a separate system

8
Architectural Models

• Different architectural models may be produced
  during the design process
• Each model presents different perspectives on the
  architecture
• Static structural model that shows the major
  system components
• Dynamic process model that shows the process
  structure of the system
• Interface model defining sub-system interfaces
• Relationships model such as a data-flow model

9
Architectural Styles

• The architectural model of a system may conform
  to a generic architectural model or style
• An awareness of these styles can simplify the
  problem of defining system architectures
• However, most large systems are heterogeneous and
  do not follow a single architectural style

10
Architecture Attributes

• Performance
• Localise operations to minimise sub-system
  communication
• Security
• Use a layered architecture with critical assets
  in inner layers
• Safety
• Isolate safety-critical components
• Availability
• Include redundant components in the architecture
• Maintainability
• Use fine-grain, self-contained components

11
System Structuring

• Concerned with decomposing the system into
  interacting sub-systems
• The architectural design is normally expressed as
  a block diagram presenting an overview of the
  system structure
• More specific models showing how sub-systems
  share data, are distributed and interface with
  each other may also be developed

12
Packing robot control system
13
The Repository Model

• Sub-systems must exchange data. This may be done
  in two ways
• Shared data is held in a central database or
  repository and may be accessed by all sub-systems
• Each sub-system maintains its own database and
  passes data explicitly to other sub-systems
• When large amounts of data are to be shared, the
  repository model of sharing is most commonly used

14
CASE Toolset Architecture
15
Repository Model Characteristics

• Advantages
• Efficient way to share large amounts of data
• Sub-systems need not be concerned with how data
  is produced Centralised management e.g. backup,
  security, etc.
• Sharing model is published as the repository
  schema
• Disadvantages
• Sub-systems must agree on a repository data
  model. Inevitably a compromise
• Data evolution is difficult and expensive
• No scope for specific management policies
• Difficult to distribute efficiently

16
Client-server Architecture

• Distributed system model which shows how data and
  processing is distributed across a range of
  components
• Set of stand-alone servers which provide specific
  services such as printing, data management, etc.
• Set of clients which call on these services
• Network which allows clients to access servers

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Film and Picture Library
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Client-server Characteristics

• Advantages
• Distribution of data is straightforward
• Makes effective use of networked systems. May
  require cheaper hardware
• Easy to add new servers or upgrade existing
  servers
• Disadvantages
• No shared data model so sub-systems use different
  data organisation. data interchange may be
  inefficient
• Redundant management in each server
• No central register of names and services - it
  may be hard to find out what servers and services
  are available

19
Abstract Machine Model

• Used to model the interfacing of sub-systems
• Organises the system into a set of layers (or
  abstract machines) each of which provide a set of
  services
• Supports the incremental development of
  sub-systems in different layers. When a layer
  interface changes, only the adjacent layer is
  affected
• However, often difficult to structure systems in
  this way

20
Version Management System
21
Control Models

• Are concerned with the control flow between
  sub-systems. Distinct from the system
  decomposition model
• Centralised control
• One sub-system has overall responsibility for
  control and starts and stops other sub-systems
• Event-based control
• Each sub-system can respond to externally
  generated events from other sub-systems or the
  systems environment

22
Centralised Control

• A control sub-system takes responsibility for
  managing execution of other sub-systems
• Call-return model
• Top-down subroutine model where control starts at
  the top of a subroutine hierarchy and moves
  downwards. Applicable to sequential systems
• Manager model
• Applicable to concurrent systems. One system
  component controls the stopping, starting and
  coordination of other system processes. Can be
  implemented as a case statement

23
Call-return Model
24
Real-time System Control
25
Event-driven Systems

• Driven by externally generated events where the
  timing of the event is outwith the control of the
  sub-systems which process the event
• Two principal event-driven models
• Broadcast models. An event is broadcast to all
  sub-systems. Any sub-system which can handle the
  event may do so
• Interrupt-driven models. Used in real-time
  systems where interrupts are detected by an
  interrupt handler and passed to some other
  component for processing
• Other event driven models include spreadsheets
  and production systems

26
Broadcast Model

• Effective in integrating sub-systems on different
  computers in a network
• Sub-systems register an interest in specific
  events. When these occur, control is transferred
  to the sub-system which can handle the event
• Control policy is not embedded in the event and
  message handler. Sub-systems decide on events of
  interest to them
• However, sub-systems dont know if or when an
  event will be handled

27
Selective Broadcasting
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Interrupt-driven Systems

• Used in real-time systems where fast response to
  an event is essential
• There are known interrupt types with a handler
  defined for each type
• Each type is associated with a memory location
  and a hardware switch causes transfer to its
  handler
• Allows fast response but complex to program and
  difficult to validate

29
Interrupt-driven Control
30
Modular Decomposition

• Another structural level where sub-systems are
  decomposed into modules
• Two modular decomposition models covered
• An object model where the system is decomposed
  into interacting objects
• A data-flow model where the system is decomposed
  into functional modules which transform inputs to
  outputs. Also known as the pipeline model
• If possible, decisions about concurrency should
  be taken when modules implemented

31
Object Models

• Structure the system into a set of loosely
  coupled objects with well-defined interfaces
• Object-oriented decomposition is concerned with
  identifying object classes, their attributes and
  operations
• When implemented, objects are created from these
  classes and some control model used to coordinate
  object operations

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Invoice Processing System
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Data-flow Models

• Functional transformations process their inputs
  to produce outputs
• May be referred to as a pipe and filter model (as
  in UNIX shell)
• Variants of this approach are very common. When
  transformations are sequential, this is a batch
  sequential model which is extensively used in
  data processing systems
• Not really suitable for interactive systems

34
Invoice Processing System
35
Domain-specific Architectures

• Architectural models which are specific to some
  application domain
• Two types of domain-specific model
• Generic models which are abstractions from a
  number of real systems and which encapsulate the
  principal characteristics of these systems
• Reference models which are more abstract,
  idealised model. Provide a means of information
  about that class of system and of comparing
  different architectures
• Generic models are usually bottom-up models
  Reference models are top-down

36
Generic Models

• Compiler model is a well-known example although
  other models exist in more specialised
  application domains
• Lexical analyser
• Symbol table
• Syntax analyser
• Syntax tree
• Semantic analyser
• Code generator
• Generic compiler model may be organised according
  to different architectural models

37
Compiler Model
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Language Processing System
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Reference Architectures

• Reference models are derived from a study of the
  application domain rather than from existing
  systems
• May be used as a basis for system implementation
  or to compare different systems. It acts as a
  standard against which systems can be evaluated
• OSI model is a layered model for communication
  systems

40
OSI Reference Model
Application
41
Distributed Systems Architectures

• Architectural design for software that executes
  on more than one processor
• Issues
• Multiprocessor architectures
• Client-server architectures
• Distributed object architectures
• CORBA

42
Distributed Systems

• Virtually all large computer-based systems are
  now distributed systems
• Information processing is distributed over
  several computers rather than confined to a
  single machine
• Distributed software engineering is now very
  important

43
System Types

• Personal systems that are not distributed and
  that are designed to run on a personal computer
  or workstation.
• Embedded systems that run on a single processor
  or on an integrated group of processors.
• Distributed systems where the system software
  runs on a loosely integrated group of cooperating
  processors linked by a network.

44
Distributed System Characteristics

• Resource sharing
• Openness
• Concurrency
• Scalability
• Fault tolerance
• Transparency

45
Distributed System Disadvantages

• Complexity
• Security
• Manageability
• Unpredictability

46
Issues in distributed system design
47
Distributed Systems Architectures

• Client-server architectures
• Distributed services which are called on by
  clients. Servers that provide services are
  treated differently from clients that use
  services
• Distributed object architectures
• No distinction between clients and servers. Any
  object on the system may provide and use services
  from other objects

48
Middleware

• Software that manages and supports the different
  components of a distributed system. In essence,
  it sits in the middle of the system
• Middleware is usually off-the-shelf rather than
  specially written software
• Examples
• Transaction processing monitors
• Data convertors
• Communication controllers

49
Multiprocessor Architectures

• Simplest distributed system model
• System composed of multiple processes which may
  (but need not) execute on different processors
• Architectural model of many large real-time
  systems
• Distribution of process to processor may be
  pre-ordered or may be under the control of a
  dispatcher

50
A multiprocessor traffic control system
51
Client-server Architectures

• The application is modelled as a set of services
  that are provided by servers and a set of clients
  that use these services
• Clients know of servers but servers need not know
  of clients
• Clients and servers are logical processes
• The mapping of processors to processes is not
  necessarily 1 1

52
A Client-server System
53
Computers in a C/S Network
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Layered Application Architecture

• Presentation layer
• Concerned with presenting the results of a
  computation to system users and with collecting
  user inputs
• Application processing layer
• Concerned with providing application specific
  functionality e.g., in a banking system, banking
  functions such as open account, close account,
  etc.
• Data management layer
• Concerned with managing the system databases

55
Application Layers
56
Thin and Fat Clients

• Thin-client model
• In a thin-client model, all of the application
  processing and data management is carried out on
  the server. The client is simply responsible for
  running the presentation software.
• Fat-client model
• In this model, the server is only responsible for
  data management. The software on the client
  implements the application logic and the
  interactions with the system user.

57
Thin and Fat Clients
58
Thin Client Model

• Used when legacy systems are migrated to client
  server architectures.
• The legacy system acts as a server in its own
  right with a graphical interface implemented on a
  client
• A major disadvantage is that it places a heavy
  processing load on both the server and the network

59
Fat Client Model

• More processing is delegated to the client as the
  application processing is locally executed
• Most suitable for new C/S systems where the
  capabilities of the client system are known in
  advance
• More complex than a thin client model especially
  for management. New versions of the application
  have to be installed on all clients

60
A Client-server ATM System
61
Three-tier Architectures

• In a three-tier architecture, each of the
  application architecture layers may execute on a
  separate processor
• Allows for better performance than a thin-client
  approach and is simpler to manage than a
  fat-client approach
• A more scalable architecture - as demands
  increase, extra servers can be added

62
A 3-tier C/S Architecture
63
An Internet Banking System
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Use of C/S Architectures
65
Distributed Object Architectures

• There is no distinction in a distributed object
  architectures between clients and servers
• Each distributable entity is an object that
  provides services to other objects and receives
  services from other objects
• Object communication is through a middleware
  system called an object request broker (software
  bus)
• However, more complex to design than C/S systems

66
Distributed Object Architecture
67
Advantages of Distributed Object Architecture

• It allows the system designer to delay decisions
  on where and how services should be provided
• It is a very open system architecture that allows
  new resources to be added to it as required
• The system is flexible and scaleable
• It is possible to reconfigure the system
  dynamically with objects migrating across the
  network as required

68
Uses of Distributed Object Architecture

• As a logical model that allows you to structure
  and organise the system. In this case, you think
  about how to provide application functionality
  solely in terms of services and combinations of
  services
• As a flexible approach to the implementation of
  client-server systems. The logical model of the
  system is a client-server model but both clients
  and servers are realised as distributed objects
  communicating through a software bus

69
A Data Mining System
70
Data Mining System

• The logical model of the system is not one of
  service provision where there are distinguished
  data management services
• It allows the number of databases that are
  accessed to be increased without disrupting the
  system
• It allows new types of relationship to be mined
  by adding new integrator objects

71
CORBA

• CORBA is an international standard for an Object
  Request Broker - middleware to manage
  communications between distributed objects
• Several implementation of CORBA are available
• DCOM is an alternative approach by Microsoft to
  object request brokers
• CORBA has been defined by the Object Management
  Group

72
Application Structure

• Application objects
• Standard objects, defined by the OMG, for a
  specific domain e.g. insurance
• Fundamental CORBA services such as directories
  and security management
• Horizontal (i.e. cutting across applications)
  facilities such as user interface facilities

73
CORBA Application Structure
74
CORBA Standards

• An object model for application objects
• A CORBA object is an encapsulation of state with
  a well-defined, language-neutral interface
  defined in an IDL (interface definition language)
• An object request broker that manages requests
  for object services
• A set of general object services of use to many
  distributed applications
• A set of common components built on top of these
  services

75
CORBA Objects

• CORBA objects are comparable, in principle, to
  objects in C and Java
• They MUST have a separate interface definition
  that is expressed using a common language (IDL)
  similar to C
• There is a mapping from this IDL to programming
  languages (C, Java, etc.)
• Therefore, objects written in different languages
  can communicate with each other

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Object Request Broker (ORB)

• The ORB handles object communications. It knows
  of all objects in the system and their interfaces
• Using an ORB, the calling object binds an IDL
  stub that defines the interface of the called
  object
• Calling this stub results in calls to the ORB
  which then calls the required object through a
  published IDL skeleton that links the interface
  to the service implementation

77
ORB-based Object Communications
78
Inter-ORB Communications

• ORBs are not usually separate programs but are a
  set of objects in a library that are linked with
  an application when it is developed
• ORBs handle communications between objects
  executing on the sane machine
• Several ORBS may be available and each computer
  in a distributed system will have its own ORB
• Inter-ORB communications are used for distributed
  object calls

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Inter-ORB Communications
80
CORBA Services

• Naming and trading services
• These allow objects to discover and refer to
  other objects on the network
• Notification services
• These allow objects to notify other objects that
  an event has occurred
• Transaction services
• These support atomic transactions and rollback on
  failure

81
Key Points

• The software architect is responsible for
  deriving a structural system model, a control
  model and a sub-system decomposition model
• Large systems rarely conform to a single
  architectural model
• System decomposition models include repository
  models, client-server models and abstract machine
  models
• Control models include centralised control and
  event-driven models

82
Key Points

• Modular decomposition models include data-flow
  and object models
• Domain specific architectural models are
  abstractions over an application domain. They may
  be constructed by abstracting from existing
  systems or may be idealised reference models

83
Key Points

• Almost all new large systems are distributed
  systems
• Distributed systems support resource sharing,
  openness, concurrency, scalability, fault
  tolerance and transparency
• Client-server architectures involve services
  being delivered by servers to programs operating
  on clients
• User interface software always runs on the client
  and data management on the server

84
Key Points

• In a distributed object architecture, there is no
  distinction between clients and servers
• Distributed object systems require middleware to
  handle object communications
• The CORBA standards are a set of middleware
  standards that support distributed object
  architectures