Literature Review and Referencing

1
Literature Review and Referencing

• Gerry S. Doroja, MSCS
• Associate Professor
• Department of Computer Science
• Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan
• gsd_at_xu.edu.ph
• August 17, 2004

Adapted from Writing up research online,
Language Center, Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand, 2003 (http//www.languages.ait.
ac.th/EL21OPEN.HTM)
2
Literature Review
3
(No Transcript)
4
What is the typical research lifecycle?
Definition (1)
Initial Solutions (2)
Technology Transfer (6)
Exploratory theory
Space of Possible Solutions (5)
Evaluation of Initial Solutions (3)
Tradeoff
Comparison of Solutions (4)
5
What is the typical research lifecycle?

• (1) Definition THE PROBLEM - Research defines a
  new problem, new constraints, new opportunity, or
  a new approach.
• (2) Initial Solutions CREATE UNITS - Initial
  algorithms, designs, theorems, programs are
  developed.
• (3) Evaluation of Initial Solutions EVALUATE
  UNITS - Initial solutions are evaluated and
  refined in isolation.
• (4) Comparison of Solutions COMPARE UNITS -
  Solutions are compared to one another and also to
  ideal solutions.
• (5) Space of Possible Solutions SPACE OF UNITS
  IDEAL MODEL - Theorems are proved about the
  limits on any solutions. Existing solutions are
  placed in a common framework to determine whether
  all possible solutions have been found.
  (including exploratory theory and tradeoff)
• (6) Technology Transfer Best approaches are
  transferred to users.

6
Research Project Phases, Research Methods the
Literature Review
Research Methods
Research Phase-Method Matrix

Research Phases
7
What is the literature?

• the works you consulted in order to understand
  and investigate your research problem
• NOT novels and poetry (as the usual
  interpretation of the word literature)

8
What are the sources for the literature review?

• Journal articles
• Books
• Conference proceedings
• Government and corporate reports
• Newspapers
• Theses and dissertations
• Internet (electronic journals)
• CD-ROM
• Magazines

How useful are the above sources?
9
Journal articles

• good especially for up-to-date information
• can take up to two years to publish articles
• offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for
  research and,
• reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors
  publish only the most relevant and reliable
  research).

10
Books 

• less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to
  be published than for a journal article ( i.e.,
  five years)
• textbooks not very useful in your literature
  review as they are intended for teaching, not for
  research however,
• textbooks do offer a good starting point from
  which to find more detailed sources.

11
Conference proceedings

• useful in providing the latest research, or
  research that has not been published
• also helpful in providing information on which
  people are currently involved in which research
  areas thus,
• can be helpful in tracking down other work by the
  same researchers.

12
Government/corporate reports

• (many) government departments and corporations
  commission or carry out research and
• their published findings can provide a useful
  source of information, depending on your field of
  study.

13
Newspapers

• generally intended for a general (not
  specialized) audience
• information they provide will be of very limited
  use for the literature review
• more helpful as providers of information about
  recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g.
  announcing changes in government policy but,
• you should then search for more detailed
  information in other sources

14
Theses and dissertations

• can be useful sources of information
• disadvantages
• 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are
  not published, but are generally only available
  from the library shelf or through interlibrary
  loan and,
• 2) the student who carried out the research may
  not be an experienced researcher and therefore
  you might have to treat their findings with more
  caution than published research. 

15
Internet

• fastest-growing source of information
• impossible to characterize the information
  available
• some hints about using electronic sources
• 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information
  on the Internet so the quality may not be
  reliable
• 2) the information you find may be intended for a
  general audience and so not be suitable for
  inclusion in your literature review (information
  for a general audience is usually less detailed)
  and,
• 3) more and more refereed electronic journals
  (e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - if
  they are refereed it means that there is an
  editorial board that evaluates the work before
  publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality
  should be more reliable (depending on the
  reputation of the journal).

16
CD-ROMS

• few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized,
  detailed information about academic research that
  you need for your own research since most are
  intended for a general audience.  
• However, more and more bibliographies are being
  put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so
  they can be a very valuable tool in searching for
  the information you need.

17
Magazines

• intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are
  unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of
  information you need.
• specialized magazines may be more useful (for
  example computer magazines for computer science
  students) but usually magazines are not useful
  for your research except as a starting point by
  providing news or general information about new
  discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further
  research in more specialized sources.

18
Why write a literature review?

• To provide a critical look at the existing
  research that is significant to the work that you
  are carrying out
• Some people think that it is a summary this is
  not true.  
• Although you need to summarize relevant research,
  it is also vital that you
• 1. evaluate this work,
• 2. show the relationships between different work,
  and
• 3. show how it relates to your work.

19
Why write a literature review?

• You cannot simply give a concise description of,
  for example, an article you need to
• 1. Select what parts of the research to discuss
  (e.g. the methodology),
• 2. Show how it relates to the other work (e.g.
  What other methodologies have been used? How are
  they similar? How are they different?) and,
• 3. Show how it relates to your work (what is its
  relationship to your methodology?).

20
Why write a literature review?

• The literature review should provide the context
  for your research by looking at what work has
  already been done in your research area.
• It is not supposed to be just a summary of other
  people's work!

21
Here are some of the questions your literature
review should answer

• 1. What do we already know in the immediate area
  concerned? (SUMMARY)
• 2. What are the characteristics of the key
  concepts or the main factors or variables?
• 3. What are the relationships between these key
  concepts, factors or variables?
• 4. What are the existing theories?
• 5. Where are the inconsistencies or other
  shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding?
• 6. What views need to be (further) tested?
• 7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive,
  contradictory or too limited?
• 8. Why study (further) the research problem?
• 9. What contribution can the present study be
  expected to make?
• 10. What research designs or methods seem
  unsatisfactory? 

22
Writing your own literature review

• easy to write a bad literature review
• difficult to write a good one

23
Example of a bad literature review

• Until recently many researchers have shown
  interest in the field of coastal erosion and the
  resulting beach profiles. They have carried out
  numerous laboratory experiments and field
  observations to illuminate the darkness of this
  field.  Their findings and suggestions are
  reviewed here.
• JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation
  conducted on the interlocking precast concrete
  block seawall. After a result of a survey of
  damages caused by the severe storm at the coast
  of USA, a new and especially shaped concrete
  block was developed for use in shore protection.
  This block was designed to be used in a revetment
  type seawall that would be both durable and
  economical as well as reduce wave run-up and
  overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was
  proved that effective shore protection could be
  designed utilizing these units.
• HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces
  acting on the seawall which was located inside
  the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental
  results conducted to measure waves forces against
  a vertical wall, the authors proposed an
  empirical formula of wave pressure distribution
  on a seawall. The computed results obtained by
  using the above formula were compared well with
  the field data of wave pressure on a vertical
  wall.
• SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (1965) conducted
  experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of
  harbor seawalls, basing on the theoretical
  investigation of solitary wave interaction with a
  vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation.
  It showed that the numerical results were in
  reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental
  data.
• and so on.

24
Which of the questions does this literature
review answer?

• The literature review offers a summary of
  previous research, so it answers question 1.
• It simply tells the reader what was discovered in
  previous research. 

25
Which of them it did not answer?

• This literature review did not answer any of the
  questions from 2 to 10.
• It doesn't evaluate the research it summarizes,
  nor does it show the relationships between the
  different theories, views and approaches it
  describes. 

26
Which method has the writer used to organize the
literature review?

• The writer has organized this literature review
  around the researchers, and has presented it
  chronologically (arranging the work by when it
  was published).
• Notice that by organizing it around the
  researchers (the summaries are listed after the
  names of the people who did the research) and not
  around the research (e.g. around key concepts)
  the writer emphasizes the people and not their
  work.

27
Is it a good literature review? Why?

• Not a good literature review
• Only gives a summary of previous research but it
  does not use the literature to explain more about
  the writer's own research problem
• Not critical did not emphasize which theories or
  findings are important, which are inconclusive,
  what the shortcomings are, etc.

28
Is it a good literature review? Why?

• does not show how previous research relates to
  the writer's own research problem, or the
  relationship between different research already
  carried out.
• the organization is not effective for showing
  relationships, drawing comparisons, or making
  evaluations. 

29
How to write a good literature review?

• Remember the purpose it should answer the
  questions mentioned earlier.
• Look at how published writers review the
  literature.
• You'll see that you should use the literature to
  explain your research - after all, you are not
  writing a literature review just to tell your
  reader what other researchers have done.
• Your aim should be to show why your research
  needs to be carried out, how you came to choose
  certain methodologies or theories to work with,
  how your work adds to the research already
  carried out, etc.

30
How to write a good literature review?

• Read with a purpose you need to summarize the
  work you read but you must also decide which
  ideas or information are important to your
  research (so you can emphasize them), and which
  are less important and can be covered briefly or
  left out of your review.
• You should also look for the major concepts,
  conclusions, theories, arguments etc. that
  underlie the work, and look for similarities and
  differences with closely related work.
• This is difficult when you first start reading,
  but should become easier the more you read in
  your area.

31
How to write a good literature review?

• Write with a purpose your aim should be to
  evaluate and show relationships between the work
  already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more
  convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X
  build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between
  this work and your own.
• In order to do this effectively you should
  carefully plan how you are going to organize your
  work.

32
How to write a good literature review?

• A lot of people like to organize their work
  chronologically (using time as their organizing
  system).
• Unless developments over time are crucial to
  explain the context of your research problem,
  using a chronological system will not be an
  effective way to organize your work.
• Some people choose to organize their work
  alphabetically by author name this system will
  not allow you to show the relationships between
  the work of different researchers, and your work,
  and should be avoided!

33
How to write a good literature review?

• When you read for your literature review, you are
  actually doing two things at the same time (which
  makes things more difficult for you!)
• you are trying to define your research problem
  finding a gap, asking a question, continuing
  previous research, counter-claiming
• you are trying to read every source relevant to
  your research problem.
• Naturally, until you have defined your problem,
  you will find that there are hundreds of sources
  that seem relevant.
• However, you cannot define your problem until you
  read around your research area.
• This seems a vicious circle, but what should
  happen is that as you read you define your
  problem, and as you define your problem you will
  more easily be able to decide what to read and
  what to ignore.

34
Some traps to avoid

• Trying to read everything!
• As you might already have discovered, if you try
  to be comprehensive you will never be able to
  finish the reading!
• The idea of the literature review is not to
  provide a summary of all the published work that
  relates to your research, but a survey of the
  most relevant and significant work.

35
Some traps to avoid

• Reading but not writing!
• It's easier to read than to write given the
  choice, most of us would rather sit down with a
  cup of coffee and read yet another article
  instead of putting ourselves in front of the
  computer to write about what we have already
  read!
• Writing takes much more effort, doesn't it?
• However, writing can help you to understand and
  find relationships between the work you've read,
  so don't put writing off until you've "finished"
  reading - after all, you will probably still be
  doing some reading all the way through to the end
  of your research project.
• Also, don't think of what you first write as
  being the final or near-final version.
• Writing is a way of thinking, so allow yourself
  to write as many drafts as you need, changing
  your ideas and information as you learn more
  about the context of your research problem.

36
Some traps to avoid

• Not keeping bibliographic information!
• The moment will come when you have to write your
  references page . . . and then you realize you
  have forgotten to keep the information you need,
  and that you never got around to putting
  references into your work.
• The only solution is to spend a lot of time in
  the library tracking down all those sources that
  you read, and going through your writing to find
  which information came from which source.
• If you're lucky, maybe you can actually do this
  before your defence - more likely, you will
  unable to find all your sources, a big headache
  for you and your committee.
• To avoid this nightmare, always keep this
  information in your notes.
• Always put REFERENCES into your writing.

37
Literature Review A (Good) Example

• Roll, Y., M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh. On the
  optimal container size in automated warehouses,
  Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR.
• Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS)
  are being introduced into the industry and
  warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts
  indicate that this trend will continue for the
  foreseeable future (see 1). Research in the
  area of AS/RS has followed several avenues.
   Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves 6, 7
  was concerned with storage assignment and
  interleaving policies, based on turnover rates of
  the various items. Elsayed 3 and Elsayed and
  Stern 4 compared algorithms for handling orders
  in AR/RS. Additional work by Karasawa et al. 9,
  Azadivar 2 and Parry et al. 11 deals with the
  design of an AS/RS and the determination of its
  throughput by simulation and optimization
  techniques.
• Several researchers addressed the problem of the
  optimal handling unit (pallet or container) size,
  to be used in material handling and warehousing
  systems. Steudell 13, Tanchoco and Agee14,
  Tanchoco et al. 15 and Grasso and Tanchoco 5
  studied various aspects of this subject. The last
  two references incorporate the size of the
  pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the
  optimal lot sizes for multi-inventory systems
  with limited storage space. In a report on a
  specific case, Normandin 10 has demonstrated
  that using the 'best-size' container can result
  in considerable savings. A simulation model
  combining container size and warehouse capacity
  considerations, in an AS/RS environment, was
  developed by Kadosh 8. The general results,
  reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of
  goods, are similar to those reported by
  Rosenblatt and Roll 12. Nevertheless, container
  size was found to affect strongly overall
  warehousing costs.
• In this paper, we present an analytical framework
  for approximating the optimal size of a warehouse
  container.  The approximation is based on series
  of generalizations and specific assumptions.
   However, these are valid for a wide range of
  real life situations. The underlying assumptions
  of the model are presented in the following
  section.

38
Notice how the writers have

• Grouped similar information "Steudell 13,
  Tanchoco and Agee14, Tanchoco et al. 15 and
  Grasso and Tanchoco 5 studied various aspects
  of this subject."
• Shown the relationship between the work of
  different researchers, showing similarities/differ
  ences "The general results, reflecting the
  stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are
  similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll
  12."
• Indicated the position of the work in the
  research area history "Early work by Hausman,
  Schwarz and Graves 6, 7  .  .  .  "
• Moved from a general discussion of the research
  in AS/RS to the more specific area (optimal
  container size) that they themselves are
  researching i.e. they relate previous work to
  their own to define it, justify it and explain it.

39
Here is an outline of the same piece of writing

• On the optimal container size in automated
  warehouses by Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D.
  Kadosh, in Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR
• 1. Forecasts of increasing rate of AR/RS
  introduction 1
• 2. Storage assignment/interleaving policies
  (Hausman, Schwarz, Graves 6,7)
• 3. Comparison of algorithms for handling orders
  (Elsayed 3, Elsayed Stern 4)
• 4. Design of AS/RS determination of throughput
  (Karasawa et al. 9, Azadivar 2, Parry et al.
  11)
• 5. Optimal handling unit (Steudel 13, Tanchoco
  Agee 14)
• a. with pallet size/unit load (Tanchoco et
  al. 15, Grasso Tanchoco 5)
• b. best-size gives savings (Normandin 10)
  
• c. simulation model (Kadosh 8)
• d. stochastic flow (Kadosh 8, Rosenblatt
  and Roll 12)
• 6. Summary of previous research container size
  was found to affect strongly overall warehousing
  costs.
• 7. Present research an analytical framework for
  approximating the optimal size of a warehouse
  container.
• From this outline, it is clear that the writers
  are organizing their information around ideas (in
  this case research) not around the researchers.
  This enables them to focus on the research
  itself, to show how different research is
  related, and how it all relates to their own
  research.

40
Referencing
41
What is referencing?

• Referencing (also called citing or documenting)
  your sources means systematically showing what
  information or ideas you are quoting or
  paraphrasing, and where they come from.
• You are entitled to use someone else's words,
  ideas or information in your work  - and in fact
  you have to do so - but you must show that they
  are not your own by indicating their source.

42
What is referencing?

• Referencing systems vary between different fields
  of study and between different journals or
  publishers within a field of study.
• Despite this variation, all referencing systems
  have the same basic components
• an in-text reference to show that a piece of
  information, idea, quotation, etc. you have
  included in your writing belongs to another
  writer. It is always designed to be short because
  it is interrupting the text, and is usually in
  parentheses

43
What is referencing?

• Example
• In recent years, there has been a rapid increase
  in car sales in Thailand (Honda 1995). ORIn
  recent years, there has been a rapid increase in
  car sales in Thailand (Honda, 1995). ORIn
  recent years, there has been a rapid increase in
  car sales in Thailand (Honda 135).ORIn recent
  years there has been a rapid increase in car
  sales in Thailand 1.ORIn recent years there
  has been a rapid increase in car sales in
  Thailand1.

44
What is referencing?

• The reader then uses the in-text reference to
  find full bibliographic information (about when
  and where the source was published, and by which
  publisher) either at the end of the page or more
  usually at the end of the paper (as a footnote),
  thesis or book (depending on the referencing
  system used).
• A referencing system that in the text uses the
  author's family name will always list sources on
  the references page alphabetically by author's
  family name a referencing system that uses
  numerical in-text references will usually list
  sources in the order in which they appear in the
  writing (not by author's name).
• This enables the reader to find sources easily.

45
What is referencing?

• Problems
• Mixing two referencing systems. If you are using
  (name year) for your in-text references, do not
  list your sources by number on your references
  page because your reader will be looking for the
  author's name. Similarly, if you are using
  numerical in-text references, you cannot list
  your sources on your references page by author
  name - your reader will be looking for numbers.
• What should you do if there is more than one
  author listed? For the in-text reference, for a
  paper with two authors list by paper by both (for
  example, Shaw and Clayton, 1996), but for a paper
  with more than two authors list by the main
  author and add et al. (literally "and the
  others"), e.g. (Jones, Suzuki and Chan 1997) is
  written as (Jones et al., 1997). Note do not
  change the order of the names, i.e. you cannot
  write (Chan et al., 1997) because Chan is not the
  main author.

46
What is referencing?

• Problems
• What should I do if there is no author listed?
  Some articles are credited to organizations
  rather than to individuals (e.g. many software
  manuals) so the organization is listed as the
  "author." Many on-line materials do not have an
  author listed again, often the organization is
  used or, if no organization owns the material,
  then it is referred to by its title.
• Adapting existing referencing systems for your
  own work. Why make work for yourself by adapting
  an existing referencing style? Use a referencing
  style that is commonly used in your field and use
  it yourself. Besides, strange, new styles will
  only confuse your reader (and as a student, your
  readers are your professors), and are often used
  just because the writer didn't bother to follow
  an existing referencing style! XUCS prescribes
  the Chicago Style

47
What is referencing?

• Problems
• What should you do if you want to use information
  by Writer X that you have found quoted or
  paraphrased in Writer Y? Your first choice should
  be to refer to the original source. For example
  you find a book by Honda published in 1993 that
  says "A study by Singh (1990) has shown that 60
  of clowns suffer from chronic depression". If you
  want to use this information, try to find the
  study by Singh and read it for yourself. If this
  is difficult or impractical, you should indicate
  where you found the information. You cannot
  attribute the information simply to Honda (as
  that writer was not the person who did the
  research) and you cannot attribute it to Singh
  (unless you have read Singh's study). Instead, in
  your research, you will write something like
  this
• Previous research supports this argument, since
  it has been found that 60 of clowns are
  sufferers of chronic depression (Singh, 1990,
  cited in Honda, 1993).
• This shows that you found the information from
  Singh in a piece by Honda and that you did not
  read the original, i.e. if there's a mistake,
  it's Honda's not yours!

48
What must be referenced?

• all work done by other researchers, and that you
  want to refer to in your own writing.
• other writers' words
• You must reference all information and ideas from
  existing work that you use in your writing,
  whether you use the source's words or your own.
  All information that is not referenced is assumed
  to be general knowledge (in your field) or to
  come directly from you, so neglecting to
  reference someone's work often means you are
  leading your reader to believe that the work is
  your own (i.e., plagiarism ).

49
What does not need to be referenced?

• general knowledge (e.g. that George W. Bush is
  the President of the U.S.A., that China has a
  larger population than Thailand),
• information that is common knowledge in your
  field, and
• ideas that are definitely your own, and findings
  or insights from your own research.

50
Problems

• What should you do if you find that your idea has
  already been published by another
  writer?Acknowledge the other writer's work, for
  example by writing in your reference something
  like (see also Wong, 1993). You must not ignore
  the other author's work, because your readers may
  think that you have either taken the idea or
  information without referencing (this is
  plagiarism) or that you do not have a good idea
  of the literature in your field.

51
Problems

• What should you do if you want to use an adapted
  version of someone else's work?You must still
  cite  the original work. For example, maybe you
  are using a diagram from an article by Wattana
  published in 1996, but you have altered it.
  Reference the adapted diagram as (adapted from
  Wattana 1996). You can also use other terms in
  order to specify the exact relationship between
  the source and the version you have presented
  e.g. based on Wattana 1996, summarized from
  Wattana 1996, etc.

52
Problems

• What should you do if several authors have
  published very similar information or ideas? You
  can indicate that the idea or information can be
  found in the work of more than one author, e.g.
  Though in fact many authors have described this
  kind of system (for example, Hynes, 1989 Wu,
  19991 Lefrère, 1994) little work has been done
  on extending it to application to robotic
  systems. If you only reference one author, then
  your readers may assume that only one author has
  published this on this topic, or that you have
  not read the literature thoroughly and are not
  aware of the other work published in this area.
  Use your referencing to give your readers a clear
  idea of the situation, not a distorted one, and
  to demonstrate your knowledge.

53
Problems

• Should you avoid referencing other people's
  work? Referencing other people's work is NOT a
  sign of weakness in their own work. In fact, the
  opposite is true. If you write up your research
  with no references to previous work, you are
  indicating to your reader that you are not
  familiar with the research that has already been
  done, and are therefore undermining your own
  credibility and the validity of your own work.
  Including references is a way of demonstrating
  your knowledge of your field -  therefore you
  must refer to previous work.

54
Problems

• What if I find exactly what I want to say in
  other people's writing? It depends on what it
  is if someone else has done the same thesis as
  you, then you're going to have to change your
  topic, or find something new to say about what
  you're doing. 
• If it is someone else's particularly succinct
  expression, but fits perfectly what you have been
  trying to say, you can quote directly, citing the
  page reference as well as the author and year of
  publication.

55
Different Referencing Systems

• Chicago style this referencing system is used
  widely in science and technology, and in some
  fields of the humanities. The in-text reference
  uses the family name of the author/s plus the
  year the work was published
• In-text reference(Smith 1978)        Note no
  comma between name and dateOR . . . according to
  Smith (1978)
• If there are more than two authors, generally the
  name of the first is used followed by the words
  "et al." (which means "and others").E.g. 
• The yield has substantially increased since 1993
  (Wong et al. 1997).

56
Different Referencing Systems

• References pageThis page comes at the end of
  the paper, thesis or book (but before any
  appendices) and has full bibliographic
  information. In other words, it provides all the
  publication (or other information about the
  source) that readers need to either find it
  themselves or to assess its validity. It contains
  a list arranged alphabetically by the last name
  of the main author and only includes works that
  have been referred to in the text (i.e. that have
  in-text references. E.g.
• Smith P. 1988. An argument against wet paddy
  mechanization of wet paddy agriculture. Journal
  of Rice Production, 8 34-60.Wong, X., M. Singh
  and P. Duncan. 1997. Increasing rice yields in
  wet paddy. Agricultural Review 15 167-191.

57
Different Referencing Systems

• APA (American Psychological Association) Style
  This system is primarily used by those writing in
  the social sciences. It is similar to the Chicago
  style.
• In-text reference(Smith, 1978) Note comma
  between name and dateFor referencing a quotation
  or specific part of a source "Development will
  be slowed by such a move" (Smith, 1988, p. 80)

58
Different Referencing Systems

• References pageAs for the Chicago style, only
  works referenced in the text are included, and
  are listed alphabetically by main author's last
  name. E.g.
• Smith, P. (1988). An argument against wet paddy
  mechanization of wet paddy agriculture. Journal
  of Rice Production, 8, 34-60.Wong, X., Singh M.
  Duncan, P. (1997). Increasing rice yields in
  wet paddy. Agricultural Review, 15, 167-191.

59
Which referencing system should be used?

• Chicago Style or APA Style

60
Referencing Online Sources

• Referencing systems for electronic sources are
  becoming standardized (so do not try and
  reference sources by inventing a system yourself
  or adapting an existing non-electronic system!).
• The in-text reference should follow the same
  format as for printed sources however, the
  bibliographic information on your references page
  will be different and generally requires you to
  include the type of resource plus when it was
  accessed, as well as the URL for on-line
  sources. For example, 
• American Council of Learned Societies (2000).
  "Fulbright Economics Teaching Program, Ho Chi
  Minh City, Vietnam". Available online
  http//www.acls.org/pub-list.htm. (Downloaded
  May 10,2000).

61
Referencing Online Sources

• For further information, consult the following
  link
• http//www.dartmouth.edu/sources/contents.html
  This site gives a complete, clearly organized
  summary of all the main issues involved in citing
  sources.
• University of Southern Mississippi This is a good
  reference site for APA style.
• Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger have
  published a book on citing Internet sources
  called on Online! The book's website has
  excellent advice on each style.  For APA
  http//www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite6.html
  1For MPA http//www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/
  cite5.html1For Chicago http//www.bedfordstmart
  ins.com/online/cite7.html1
• How to Cite Electronic Resources from Williams
  College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
• Citation Guides for Electronic Documents from the
  International Federation of Library Associations
  and Institutions.

62
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• A quotation is the use of your source's exact
  words in your work.
• A quotation may be as short as one word but, if
  that word is significant, it must be put in
  quotation marks and referenced. 

63
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Quotations should include the exact words of your
  source inside quotation marks, e.g. "Everything
  we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996
  45). If you look in Kenny 1996 at page 45 you
  will find the words Everything we do is an
  experience of a kind with no alterations or
  omissions. However, you can make changes, if
  necessary, as follows
• leaving out a word or wordsORIGINAL"In many
  academic circles in America, literary translation
  is still considered a secondary activity,
  mechanical rather than creative, neither worthy
  of serious critical attention nor of general
  interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993 34).
• SHORTENED"In many academic circles in
  America, literary translation is still considered
  a secondary activity . . . neither worthy of
  serious critical attention nor of general
  interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993 34).

64
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• No matter how many words you take out, you only
  use three dots (except if the quoted sentence
  comes to an end, in which case you use three plus
  a full stop, i.e. four). Also, there is no need
  to use en ellipsis ( . . . ) at the beginning and
  end of each quotation.

65
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Note the use of page numbers here -  in this
  case, the quote is borrowed from page 34 of
  Gentzler's 1993 publication. You should always
  give page numbers when you quote text directly
  from a source.
• making small alterations/clarifications
• ORIGINALRaymond (1996) argues that,
  "The people never knew what good food was"
  (p.245).
• ALTEREDRaymond argues that "the
  people in England never knew what good food
  was" (1996 245). Here the writer clarifies who
  "The people" are, and changes capital T to small
  to fit the writer's sentence structure.

66
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Quotations should be included in your sentence.
  For example
• INCORRECT"Everything we do is an experience
  of a kind" (Kenny 1996 45).
• CORRECTIt can be argued that "everything we
  do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996 45).
  Here the writer has included Kenny's quotation in
  his/her own sentence.
• The quotation should fit grammatically into your
  sentence - so choose the point at which to start.

67
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Quotations must be indicated with quotation marks
  (" . . .") unless you are using a long quotation,
  in which case it should be set in an indented
  block
• This is a long quotation and so is not shown by
  quotation marks but by being set in a block that
  is indented and usually single-spaced.
• The exact style of indentation (e.g. indented on
  one side or both, indented by three or five
  spaces) will depend on the style you are using in
  your work (e.g. Chicago, etc.) (Brightwell, 1998)

68
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Quotations should be kept short and kept to a
  minimum (i.e. only use quotations when the words
  themselves are important).
• Avoid using a large number of quotations as they
  mean you are letting your sources present ideas
  instead of you presenting your own.

69
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Paraphrasing means putting an author's ideas or
  information into your own words
• Original  "This has led to the conclusion that,
  out of the US population at large, 90 watch
  television to excess" (Wu, 1994).
• Paraphrased"In contradiction to Suzukis claim,
  Wu argues that 90 of Americans watch too much
  television (1994)". 
• There is no need to use Wu's exact words as it is
  his information (not his words) that is important
  here. Notice too that with paraphrasing it is
  easier to comment on the work you are referring
  to (e.g. here it is compared to Suzuki's). It is
  also not usually necessary to give page numbers
  when paraphrasing.
• You should be careful to indicate which are your
  ideas and which are the author's by careful use
  of references and by where and how you break
  sentences. This is a subtle art and you should
  look at published work for examples for how to do
  this effectively.

70
Quoting and Paraphrasing

• Paraphrasing must include page references. This
  is necessary, as you are claiming that the quote
  you are reproducing is authoritative the reader
  needs to be able to check the exact point in the
  text to which you refer.
• Paraphrasing is more generally used than quoting
  as it enables you to comment on, evaluate and
  summarize information
• Paraphrasing can be used with quotations (i.e.
  you can quote within a paraphrase)
• Paraphrasing must always be referenced (because
  you are using someone else's ideas or
  information)
•  Paraphrasing is never enclosed by quotation
  marks or indentation
• Paraphrasing does not mean a word-for-word
  rewrite of the original (usually you are
  summarizing your source or highlighting one or
  more points).

71
Plagiarism

• This means using someone else's words, ideas or
  information without referencing them - in other
  words, presenting them as your own. Any work that
  is not referenced is assumed to be yours, so
  ensure that this is true. 
• Plagiarism is considered a serious academic
  offence in most academic institutions (see XU
  Student Handbook)
• To avoid it, use quotations and paraphrases with
  proper referencing. When you are reading, keep
  careful notes of your sources, including all the
  bibliographic information that you need to write
  a full reference for the sources.

72
What may be considered an Authoritative
Literature Search in Computer Science?

• Local (Northern Mindanao/Mindanao)
• XUCS Research Page Department of Computer
  Science, Xavier University (http//courseweb.xu.ed
  u.ph/courses/research/index.html)
• Methods of Research in CS Page Department of
  Computer Science, Xavier University
  (http//courseweb.xu.edu.ph/courses/msit121/)
• XU Main Library Web Site Xavier University Main
  Library (WebOPAC, Online Databases including
  Wilson OmniFile and EBSCO Databases)
• Web Sites of Schools with CS/IT Research Programs
  MSU-IIT, CU, LDCU, ADDU, DZU

73
What may be considered an Authoritative
Literature Search in Computer Science?

• National
• Web Sites of Schools with CS/IT Research Programs
  ADMU, DLSU, UPD, UPLB
• Web Sites of Government Organizations ASTI,
  PCASTRD, SEI,
• CS/IT Related Research Conference/PublicationsPJM
  IT, PJS, CSP (Computing Society of the
  Philippines Annual Computer Conference)

74
What may be considered an Authoritative
Literature Search in Computer Science?

• International
• IEE INSPEC Database(http//www.iee.org/publish/in
  spec/)Produced by IEE
• ResearchIndex(http//www.researchindex.org)
• Association for Computing Machinery
  (ACM)(http//www.acm.org)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
  (IEEE)(http//www.ieee.org)
• Theses and Dissertation Database (of Computer
  Science Departments of Universities)

75
Some Recommended Computer Science Sites

• Networked Computer Science Technical Reference
  Library An international collection of computer
  science research reports and papers made
  available for non-commercial use from a number of
  participating institutions and archives.
• Computer Science Directory A well-organized
  search capability for computer science papers and
  algorithms.
• National Science Digital Library Provides search
  capability plus links to other libraries.
• Computing and Information Technology Interactive
  Digital Educational Library Contains a useful
  and growing collection of resources
• Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies A
  collection of bibliographies of scientific
  literature in computer science from various
  sources, covering most aspects of computer
  science. Updated monthly has nearly one million
  entries.
• INFOMIME A virtual library of Internet resources
  relevant to faculty, students, and research staff
  at the university level.
• Links for Computer Science Researchers An
  excellent collection of links.

76
Literature Review - Exercise

• Develop an outline/initial draft of your
  literature review chapter based on the
  suggestions and recommendations in this lecture.
• Due on August 24, 2004.