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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running A.
Leg articulations condyles
Coxal articulation
trochantin
Coxal cavity
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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running A.
Leg articulations condyles 1.
monocondylic 2. dicondylic
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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running B.
Nervous Coordination
Extensor (lower extend leg)
Flexor (raise bend leg)
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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running B.
Nervous Coordination 1. Basic rhythmical
pattern Central Pattern Generator
subpopulation of interneurons and motor neurons
contained entirely within the central nervous
system that can produce a complete motor program
without sensory feedback ex walking in
cockroach flexor burst generator
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(Command neuron an interneuron that is both
necessary and sufficient to trigger a
complete motor program)
command interneuron
thoracic ganglion
FMN
Flexor muscle
FBG
EMN
Extensor muscle
excitatory synapse
inhibitory synapse
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• 1. Command interneuron produces continuous
  stream of impulses
• stimulates EMN leg extends
• simultaneously stimulates FBG
• 2. FBG turns continuous input from command
  interneuron into
• periodic output FBG fires
• Inhibits EMN
• excites FMN leg flexes
• 3. FBG falls silent
• command interneuron
• stimulates EMN, leg
• extends
• cycle repeats

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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running B.
Nervous Coordination 2. Modification of CPG
by sensory feedback
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Cuticle stress receptor (campaniform sensillum)
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Insect Locomotion I. Walking and Running B.
Nervous Coordination 3. CNS control of CPGs
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Insect Locomotion II. Jumping A. Modified
hindlegs
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Insect Locomotion II. Jumping B. Furcula of
Collembolans
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Insect Locomotion II. Jumping C. Cuticular
elasticity
resilin
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Insect Locomotion III. Aquatic locomotion A.
Surface locomotion
Water strider
Whirligig beetle
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Gyrinid beeltes
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Insect Locomotion III. Aquatic locomotion B.
Subsurface locomotion 1. appendages for
swimming dytiscid beetles
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Insect Locomotion III. Aquatic locomotion B.
Subsurface locomotion 2. jet propulsion
Odonate naiads
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 1. Indirect flight muscles a.
Dorso-longitudinal muscles -- run
between phragma of postnota
-- lower wings b. Dorso-ventral muscles
-- run from notum to sternum
-- raise wings Primary flight muscles
for Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidopera,
Coleoptera
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notum
Dorso- longitudinal muscle
Dorso-ventral muscle

sternum
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Dorso-ventral muscles
Dorso-longitudinal muscles
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Dorsoventral muscles contracted
wings rise
Dorsolongitudinal muscles contracted
wings lower
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 1. Indirect flight muscles --
controlled by CPG in thoracic ganglia --
innervated by resonating motor neurons
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 2. Direct flight muscles
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notum
Dorso- longitudinal muscle
Direct flight muscles
Dorsoventral muscle
sternum

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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 2. Direct flight muscles a.
Primary flight muscles for Odonata
Orthoptera
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 2. Direct flight muscles b.
steering
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figure 8 pattern of wing movement
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hovering
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight A. Mechanisms for
flight 3. Cuticular elasticity click
mechanism -- wing hinge has 2 stable
positions full up full down
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Click Mechanism
wing hinge




Dorso-longitudinal muscles contracted
Dorso-ventral muscles contracted
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 1. initiation of
flight -- loss of contact with substrate --
touch, sound, visual cues
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight a. Control of flight speed
1) hairs and bristles (trichoid sensilla)
Example 1 Hair plates of locust
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight a. Control of flight speed
1) hairs and bristles
Example 2 interommatidial hairs of honey bee
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight a. Control of flight speed
2) Johnstons organ
controls wing-beat amplitude in honey bees
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight a. Control of flight speed
3) compound eyes optomotor response
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight b. adjustments during flight
(steering) -- pitch, roll, yaw
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Roll side-to-side rocking about
horizontal axis
Pitch up-and-down tilting about vertical axis
Yaw side-to-side drifting about vertical axis
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight b. adjustments during flight
1) campaniform sensilla
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight b. adjustments during flight
2) chordonotal organs
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight b. adjustments during flight
3) halteres of Diptera
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight B. Sensory
regulation of flight 2. regulation during
flight b. adjustments during flight
4) hair plates of Odonates
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Insect Locomotion IV. Flight C. Evolutionary
trends in insect flight -- reduction in
functional no. of wings gt reversed wing beat
in Odonates gt wing coupling devices gt
loss of hindwings in Dipterans