Seven Steps of Marketing Research

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Marriage
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WHAT IS MARRIAGE?
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a transaction and resulting contract in which a
person (m or f, corporate or individual)
establishes a continuing claim to the right of
sexual access to a woman. This right having
priority over rights of sexual access others
currently have, and which the woman involved is
eligible to bear children. Goodenough (1970)

A socially sanctioned sexual and economic union
between two or more members of opposite sexes.
Howard, Michael. 1989454
A social approved sexual union of some permanence
between two or more individuals
(Robertson, 1981630)
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A series of customs formalizing the relationship
between male and female adults within the family.
Marriage is a socially approved union between a
man and a woman that regulates the sexual and
economic rights and obligations between them.
Marriage usually involves an explicit contract or
understanding and is entered into with the
assumption that it will be permanent.
Ferraro 2003
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Characteristics of Marriage

• socially approved or sanctioned
• sexual union
• between a man and a woman
• adults
• economic/ political/religious union
• assumption of relative permanence
• a bundle of rights, expectations, and
  obligations
  
• legal (a contract)
• a process (formation of household or family as
  economically productive unit)

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Socially Approved
Prior to 1960 laws prevented unmarried couples in
the US from registering in hotels and it was very
difficult for an unmarried couple to obtain a
home mortgage. In Canada, the number of common-l
aw unions has more than doubled since 1981,
(357,000 common-law relationshipsabout 6 of all
couples.) By the 1996 Census, 920,640 common-law
couples were recorded, roughly 14 of all
couples Women in the 90s were more likely than
women in the 80s to cohabit rather than marry
in response to pregnancy. Suggests that
cohabitation is becoming more a substitute for
marriage, rather than a form of engagement that
culminates in marriage
Living in Sin?
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Canadian stats
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Sexual Union?
Marriages of Convenience
Nayar Girls, Upper Class. Photo by Nicholas Co.
ca. 1913
postpartum sex taboo
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Between a Man and a Woman?
Cheyenne
Male Daughters, Female Husbands Gender and Sex
in an African Society , Zed Books, 1987
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Gay and Lesbian Marriages in Canada

• In the 1990s and early 2000s, the provincial
  governments of Alberta, British Columbia, Nova
  Scotia, Ontario and Quebec granted restricted
  rights to gays and lesbians, that were nearly
  equivalent to those enjoyed by heterosexual
  common-law couples.
• June 10, 2003-, the definition of marriage in
  Ontario was widened by the courts so that
  same-sex couples were allowed to obtain marriage
  licenses and register their marriages for the
  first time.
• July 8 2003 British Columbia followed suit.
• The deputy Prime Minister, John Manley, commented
  to the media on August 21 2003 that Quebec will
  soon start to register same sex marriages
  
• If this happens, then same sex marriages will be
  available to 80 of Canada's gay and lesbian
  population without having to leave their province
  of residency.
• In July 2003 The federal government submitted
  draft legislation to the Supreme Court of Canada
  which would redefine marriage to include same-sex
  couples. The Court is expected to rule on the
  constitutionality of the proposed laws in 2004.

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What other countries recognize same-sex marriages?

• Netherlands
• Germany

What U.S. states give same-sex domestic partners
rights similar to spouses?

• Vermont and California

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Between Adults?
Berber Child Bride, Morocco After Berber wedding
rituals are concluded, the bride is permitted to
remove her veil, revealing, in this instance, the
childlike beauty of a 12-year-old.
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September 30 2003
Human rights activists have demanded action over
the marriage of Ana-Maria Cioaba to a 15-year-old
bridegroom. Ana-Maria is reported to be either 1
2 or 14 years old Family members say she had been
promised in marriage to 15-year-old Birita Mihai
when she was just seven, for the price of 500
gold coins. The girl's father, Florin Cioaba, tol
d critics to keep out of his business. "As a
father I know what is good for my kids. We Roma
have a tradition to marry our children when
minors," he said. The minimum age for legal wedd
ings in Romania is 16, but the practice of
school-age marriages remains common in the Roma
community, and the Romanian authorities normally
turn a blind eye.
Florin Cioaba was defiant about Ana-Maria's
wedding
Friends say she was forced to consummate the
marriage. "Legally it was rape," one friend said.
The wedding was an "exceptionally grave breach o
f children's rights", said Romanian Deputy Prime
Minister Serban Mihailescu.
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Political, Religious, Economic Union?
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Bridewealth or bride-price

• A gift of money or goods given to the brides
  kin by the groom or his kin
  
• most common in pastoral communities where the
  traditional currency is livestock, especially
  cattle, horses, camels. now increasingly include
  money.
• in order to marry, young men must subordinate
  themselves, and become obligated to their elders
  (and provide labour, political support, bear arms
  etc.)
• senior men also therefore command the allocation
  of womens labour power.
  
• some men use this power to obtain several wives
  for themselves,

Dani Chief with Bride Price Stone
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Bridewealth

• payments may be concluded at the time of
  marriage or may continue for years.
  
• Bridewealth provides for a continuing relation
  between groups since in many societies a mans
  kin are expected to contribute to the bridewealth
  needed for this marriage.

• Represents a tangible public statement of the
  marriage transaction -- as if they went through a
  church wedding
  
• Some dramatic changes in bridewealth have
  occurred with the introduction of education. An
  educated women is worth far more than an
  uneducated one.

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Most commonly bridewealth occurs in patrilineal
descent systems The Nuer and Dinka, the transfer
of cattle in marriage assumes a symbolically and
politically central place in the affairs of
descent groups.

• rights transferred to the grooms group in
  exchange for
  
• rights over a womans fertility
• labour
• future members
• characteristically seen as compensation to her
  kin group for the loss of her work services and
  presence as well as her fertility.

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Bridewealth

• Legalizes marriage and legitimizes offspring
• In patrilineal system, gives father the right to
  have the children belong to his group
  
• Compensates brides family for loss of her
  services and allows them to replace her with
  daughter-in-law
  
• Serves to ally families, those who receive share
  of payment are witnesses to marriage
  
• Status symbol for both families
• Guarantee of husbands good behavior

• Bride service groom works for brides family

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Dowry
A transfer of goods or money from the brides
family to bridegroom, or the grooms family.

• a dowry is a womans share of parental property
  which instead of passing to her upon her parents
  death is distributed to her at the time of her
  marriage
• which does not mean that she controls it
• under traditional European law, for example a
  womans property falls exclusively under the
  control of her husband.
  
• Also provides a mechanism for forming alliances
  between families
  
• characteristic of societies with fixed plot
  agriculture
  
• common among European peasants and widespread in
  Asia, especially India

A Kazak woman opening a young bride's dowry.  The
dowry includes rugs, handsewn mattresses,
dresses, and dishes.
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Bollywood spoof posters
Dowry is still an essential part of marriage
negotiations in India. But nearly 5000 women a y
ear are killed because they did not bring a big
enough dowry ("bride burning" or "dowry deaths")
Anti-Dowry DemonstrationDelhi, 1980
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A bundle of rights and Obligations

• Traditionally, in most societies, marriage was
  primarily an alliance between kin groups rather
  than between individuals.
  
• marriage involves a transfer or flow of these
  rights
  
• set of rights passes from a wifes group to
  husbands (or vice versa)
  
• rights to labour of men and women (economic)
• rights to property - labour of women belong to
  mens lineage (economic)
  
• rights to the priority of sexual access
  (sexual)
  
• rights over children i.e. belong to mans or
  womans lineage (social)
  
• in patrilineal societies the husband acquires
  the rights to womens fertility
  
• in matrilineal societies this remains with the
  wifes group,

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legal contract
Austria DenmarkSlovakia Bulgaria Israel
KyrgyzstanRomania Portugal Poland Armenia
GreeceSpain AzerbaijanCroatiaCyprus Georgia
Italy UzbekistanAlbania TurkeyMacedonia
3835342826252421191818171515131212
12765
BelarusRussiaSwedenLatviaUkraineCzech
Rep.BelgiumFinlandLithuaniaU. K.
MoldovaU.S.HungaryCanada Norway
FranceGermanyNetherlandsSwitzerland Iceland
Kazakhstan
6865646363615656555352494645
434341414039
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What happens when the contract is broken?
Percentage of Divorces in Selected Countries
Divorces (as of marriages)
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Divorce Patterns

• If the wife earns more than her husband, the
  marriage is more likely to break up.
  
• If the wifes health is poorer than her
  husbands, the marriage is more likely to break
  up.
  
• The more housework a wife does, the less likely a
  couple is to divorce.
  
• Can you explain these findings?

(Heckert, Nowak and Snyder, 1995)
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Heckert, Nowak and Snyder Suggest

• A wife who earns more has more alternatives to an
  unsatisfying marriage.
  
• Social pressure is greater for a wife to take
  care of her husband.
  
• Housework is related to bargaining power-- wives
  with more bargaining power are the least likely
  to put up with unsatisfying marriages.

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Divorce in non-Western societies

• often involves a contract between corporations
  and is more difficult than in West
  
• where bridewealth is high marriage is stable,
  where low divorce common
  
• what happens to the bridewealth?
• sometimes all or part returned
• may depend on the cause of divorce, or any
  children
  
• what happens to the contract between kin groups
  in terms of rights over the children.
  
• The relationship contractually established may
  endure despite the death of one of the partners

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Levirate
Deuteronomy 255-6 If brothers are living
together and one of them dies without a son, his
widow must not marry outside the family. Her
husbands brother shall take her and marry her
and fulfill the duty of a brother-in-law to her
The first son she bears shall carry on the name
of the dead brother so that his name will not be
blotted out from Israel.
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Sororate If a wife dies her lineage may be cont
ractually obliged to provide a replacement I.e.
her sister, or brothers daughter, or some other
close relative 1. a widower is entitled to a repl
acement bride from the same lineage or family.
2. obliges a woman to marry her deceased sisters
husband. 3. The longer the period of first marria
ge and the more children the less the claim.
4. levirate and sororate demonstrate that
marriage is a union not simply between
individuals but between the representatives of
groups and that it is a contractual relationship
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Nuer Ghost Marriage
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How Many Should one Marry?
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• Polygamy
• Polygyny
• one man and two or more women. (70 of
  societies)
  
• most common where women are important
  contributors to the economy e.g. agricultural
  societies
  
• Polygyny often practised by men of wealth or
  high rank
  
• Commonly associated with an age asymmetry, were
  prominent men have gained power and wealth later
  in life and can afford another wife
  
• This causes a shortage of young women, and an
  excess of young unmarried
  
• men marry at an older age than women.
• Polygamy has been the cultural ideal in most
  societies.
  
• But monogamy is the statistical reality in all
  societies.
  

Polyandry
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Polygyny

• Advantages for man

• Many children
• Prestige
• Wealth produced by wives and children
• Sex partners often many taboos
• Political alliances with in-laws

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Polygyny
Advantages for woman
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• Polygyny
• Advantages for woman
• Prestige and wealth of household
• Share housework and childcare
• Less child bearing
• Greater freedom and autonomy
• Companionship
• Can get married easily

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Conflicts

• Conflicting interest in children inheritance
• jealousy

Kings 113 He King Solomon had seven hundred
wives of royal birth and three hundred
concubines, and his wives led him astray.
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Polygyny

• Works best when roles are institutionalized
• Husband advised to treat each wife equally
• Hut complex
• Rotation system
• Clear inheritance rules
• Sororal polygyny

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• Polyandry
• two or more men share sexual access to one
  woman
  
• quite rare
• common form is where a group of brothers marry
  one woman - called fraternal polyandry

• E.g. In Himalayas with land shortage its an
  effective way of limiting the population while
  ensuring their perpetuation.
  
• The marriage of brothers to a single woman
  averted the danger of constantly subdividing
  farmlands among all the sons of any one landowner.

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Who Should one Marry/Not Marry
Rules of Exogamy (out marriage) and Endogamy
(in-marriage)

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Rules of exogamy (out marriage)

• all societies have rules of exogamy which
  specify the ranges and categories of relatives
  who are considered forbidden as marriage
  partners.
• prohibitions on sexual relations and marriage
  between parents and children and brothers and
  sisters are universally applied. Incest Taboo
  
• most societies extend these relationships to
  other close relatives but the ranges and
  categories included vary among societies

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Rules of endogamy (-in -marriage)

• 1. Rules that channel individuals into marriages
  within particular groups or categories, ranges of
  relationships
  
• In spite of pervasive emphasis on love and
  individual choice in Western societies
  individuals are encouraged and sometimes forced
  to marry within ethnic and religious groups,
  similar class and educational backgrounds,
• Endogamous practices help to highlight community
  identity and uniqueness in opposition to
  neighbouring groups with whom marriages are
  discouraged.
• Endogamy is often applied to reinforce a groups
  ability to maintain restrictive access to
  property, power and status.
  
• Three types of intra-society endogamy
• caste endogamy,
• village endogamy
• lineage endogamy.

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Cross Cousin and Parallel Cousin Marriages
Ego's cross cousins (in yellow) are distinguished
from his parallel cousins (in green) as the
children of opposite and same sexed parental
siblings, respectively. In many societies the id
eal is to marry ones cross cousin, as he/she
will belong to a different lineage (for alliance
purposes), or parallel cousin, as the cousin will
be in the same lineage (for inheritance purposes).
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Prohibitions on Cousin Marriages in the USA
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Incest Taboo

• Holds for parents and siblings in all current
  societies
  
• Only exceptions in pastBrother-Sister mating
  among royalty in ancient Egypt, Hawaii, Inca

• Cleopatra, the Last Pharaoh (B.C. 69-30)
• reigned as Queen Philopator and Pharaoh between
  51 and 30 BC
  
• Married brother Ptolemy XIII
• After Ptolemy XIIIs death, married brother
  Ptolemy XIV

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Explanations for incest taboo

• Biological
• Inbreeding results in Deleterious genetic
  defects
  
• Psychological
• Familiarity breads contempt
• Sociological
• Increases network of cooperation, spread ideas as
  well as genes
  
• Minimizing sexual competition within family
• Avoids role disruption within family

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Many, many years ago when I was just
twenty-three, I was married to a widow, she was p
retty as could be. This widow had a grown-up daug
hter who had hair of red And my father fell in Lo
ve with her. Soon they too were wed.
  This made my dad my son-in-law--changed my very
life! My daughter was my mother because she was
my father's wife! To complicate the matter even t
hough it brought me joy, I soon became the father
of a bouncing baby boy.   My little baby he the
n became a brother-in-law to Dad.
Well, that made him my uncle--made me very sad!
Because if he was my uncle then he also was a
brother To the widow's grown-up daughter, who, of
course, was my stepmother. My father's wife th
en had a son who kept them on the run.
And, of course, he became my grandchild because
he was my daughter's son. My wife is now my mothe
r's mother and this makes me blue
Because although she is my wife, she's my
grandmother too! Now if my wife is my grandmoth
er, well, then I am her grandchild,
And every time that I think about this, it nearly
drives me wild! Because now I have become the str
angest case that you ever saw As husband of my gr
andmother, Im my own grandpa!
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Why do People Get Married

• Defines relations of pair to each other, their
  kin, future offspring and society
  
• Traditional reasons for marriage
• Gain adult status
• Sexual division of labor
• To have legitimate children
• Economic and political considerations
• Love

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History of Passionate Love

• 1500 west diverges from rest of world -
  emergence of the self
  
• the rise of individualism, democracy reinforces
  romantic love
  
• West 500 yrs to make transition
• Rest of world - 50 yrs
• love marriage sweeps the world

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Rules of Residence

• Patrilocal Wife joins husbands family
• Matrilocal Husband joins wifes family
• Neolocal Couple form new residence

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• Marriage is a process
• process through which families are formed
• process whereby descent groups are interlinked
• process of achieving reproduction of society,
  both socially and biologically.