A Brief Review of Popular Approaches to Understanding Leadership

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A Brief Review of Popular Approaches to
Understanding Leadership

• Traits
• Behaviors
• Processes
• Followers

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Popularity of Leadership Research
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Understanding Leadership

• On immigration, there have been repeated calls
  for senators to take leadership on the issue.
• In the 2004 Presidential debate, Bush showed his
  leadership on a number of important issues.
• The Apprentice, 2006 Sean demonstrated great
  leadership skills during the entire season.

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Leadership

• There exist several different approaches to
  understanding and describing leadership
• To understand leadership, we consider...
• Traits (What traits do leaders possess?)
• Behaviors (What do leaders do?)
• Processes (How do leaders get things done?)
• Follower (How does style reflect needs of
  followers?)

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Trait approach to Leadership

• Basic assumptions
• All great leaders possess some outstanding,
  individual qualities.
• These qualities are unique to great people and
  elusive for others.
• The Great Man approach to leadership

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According to the Trait approach

• Certain people are born with leadership traits
  and only great people possess them.
• Leaders are born, not made
• Some traits predict
• leader emergence which people become leaders
• leader effectiveness which people are effective
  at influencing others

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Who are great leaders in history?

• Martin Luther King, Jr.
• JFK
• Gandhi
• Mother Teresa
• Princess Diana
• Abraham Lincoln
• George Washington

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Great Leaders

• In a sense, these leaders are defined by great
  individual characteristics
• MLK, Jr. vision and perseverance
• JFK charisma and communication skill
• Mother Teresa compassion and self-sacrifice
• Geo. Washington honesty modesty
• Lincoln persistence and commitment to values

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What are the great traits?

• Selflessness (attention to group success)
• Hardworking
• Honest
• Fair in handling conflict
• Able to draw on the strength of others
• Able to time the appropriateness of action

Lao-tzu, Daodejing (Classic of the Way and Its
Virtue). 6th Century B.C.
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Great Traits

• Homer, Iliad and Odyssey
• Wisdom and Service to Others
• Plato, Republic
• Wisdom and Reasoning Capacities
• Aristotle, Politics
• Leaders help others seek virtue
• Machiavelli, The Prince
• Power and the ability to understand (and
  manipulate) social situations

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What are the Great Traits?

• Stogdill (1948) leaders were different from
  non-leaders along 8 personal traits

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What are the Great Traits?

• Mann (1959) 6 personality traits could
  distinguish leaders

A Reflection of the times (1959)?
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What are the Great Traits?

• Stogdill (1974) 10 traits that were positively
  associated with leadership

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What are the Great Traits?

• Lord (1986) An attempt to re-confirm the
  studies done by Mann (1959)

Lord argued that these personality traits made
discriminations between leaders and non-leaders
across situations
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What are the Great Traits?

• Kirkpatrick Locke (1991) it is unequivocally
  clear that leaders are not like other people.

According to these authors, individuals can be
born with these traits, they can learn them, or
both. These 6 traits make up the right stuff.
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Advantages of Trait approach

• Its intuitively appealing
• We like to think of our leaders as great,
  outstanding, gifted, exceptional
• There is a century of research to back it up
• It provides a few benchmarks on what to look for
  (individual traits, core qualities)

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Disadvantages of the Trait Approach

• Offers a breadth of traits related to leadership
  But which are most important?
• Defines leadership according to the leaders
  individual traits
• Little or no consideration for the situation
• No mention of follower traits
• There is some convergence regarding the set
  universal traits, but still some ambiguity

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A Model of Understanding Leadership
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Trait approach to Leadership
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The Trait approach

• Started with the notion that Leaders are born.
• Suggests that leaders can be distinguished from
  non-leaders by a universal set of traits
• Note More focus on leader emergence, less on
  effectiveness
• Organizations should select, develop, and train
  the right people with the right stuff.
• Defines leadership as a set of traits without
  consideration of the follower or the situation.

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Leadershipas an influence process

• Leadership
• Is not bound by positions of formal authority.
• Is not a collection of admirable traits or a
  cluster of interesting leader-like behaviors.
• Is shaped by fundamental assumptions about human
  nature.
• Relies on the effective use of personal power,
• Charisma, expertise, ethics, fairness,
  credibility
• And on the use of effective communication
  patterns.
• Storytelling, framing, persuasion

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Process approaches to leadership

• Explain the process by which relationships
  between leaders and followers are formed
• Does not assign leader effectiveness to a set of
  traits or an orientation, but to a change in
  followers that is facilitated by leaders.
• Does not limit leadership to positions of formal
  authority
• We askHow do leaders get things done?

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Process Forms of Leadership

• Transactional leadership
• Reinforce followers for successful completion of
  their end of the bargain (contingent reward)
• Transformational leadership
• Transformational leadership motivates followers
  to strive toward higher goals or vision that
  transcend their immediate self-interests
• Transformational leaders
• Are charismatic and trusted
• Present a positive, appealing vision of the
  future
• Are seen as agents of change and innovation
• Encourage and support followers

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Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership

• Transformational Leaders
• Idealized influence (Charisma)
• Intellectual stimulation
• Inspirational motivation
• Individualized consideration
• Transactional Leaders
• Contingent rewards
• Management-by-exception

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Three DimensionsTransactional Leadership

• Contingent reward
• Exchanging resources for follower support
• Management by exception-active
• monitoring performance/taking corrective action
• Management by exception-passive
• intervening only when problem becomes serious

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Transformational DimensionsSee MLQ

• Idealized influence
• serving as charismatic role model to followers
• Inspirational motivation
• articulation of inspiring vision to followers
• Intellectual stimulation
• stimulating creativity by asking questions,
  challenging assumptions
• Individualized consideration
• attending to individual needs of followers

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What do effective leaders say

• To express intellectual stimulation?
• To provide inspirational motivation?
• To express individualized consideration?
• To exhibit idealized influence?
• Is a leader born as transformational?
• Can someone learn to be transformational?

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Types of Leaders
Transactional
Transformational

• Short-term
• Monitoring
• Controlling
• Extrinsic
• Efficiency (clock)
• Operating within system

• Long-term
• Trusting
• Empowering
• Intrinsic
• Direction (compass)
• Changing system

What assumptions underlie a managers decision to
engage in each approach?
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Support for Transformational Leadership
Correlations for TL are average validity across
87 studies
Source Judge Piccolo (2004)
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Transformational Leadership vs. Contingent Reward
Source Judge Piccolo (2004)
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Global Support for Transformational Leadership
Theory

• Australia
• Australia
• New Zealand
• North America
• Canada
• Mexico
• U. S.
• South America
• Dominican Rep.
• Venezuela

• Asia
• China
• India
• Indonesia
• Japan
• Africa/Mid-East
• Egypt
• Israel
• Saudi Arabia
• South Africa

EuropeFranceGermanyGreat BritainItalyNetherl
andsSpain
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Support Across Occupations

• Entrepreneurs
• Upper management
• VMI cadets
• White collar employees
• Union shop stewards
• School teachers
• Insurance sales reps
• Chamber of commerce

• School principals
• Marine commanders
• Methodist ministers
• Presidents of MBAA
• Middle managers
• Supervisors
• CEOs
• Junior naval officers

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Leadership Influence

• If we broaden our vision of leadership beyond
  formal positions of authority
• (i.e., we think of leadership as a process)
• (i.e., take a follower-oriented approach)
• then Leadership, Power, Influence Persuasion
  are strongly related.

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What is Power?

• The potential of an individual (or group) to
  influence another individual or group.
• Influence is the exercise of power to change the
  behavior, attitudes, and/or values of that
  individual or group.
• Note Its easier to change behaviors than
  attitudes, and easier to change attitudes than
  beliefs

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Where does power come from?

• Positional Power
• Formal authority
• Relevance
• Centrality
• Autonomy
• Visibility
• Personal Power
• Expertise
• Track record
• Attractiveness

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Myths Realities of Management
From Linda A. Hill (2006)
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Charismatic Leadership

• What is charisma?
• How is it measured?
• Does it matter?
• How does it work?
• Are charismatic leaders born or made?
• http//www.history.com/media.do?actionclipidwbp
  _beschloss_broadband

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CHARISMA

• A special quality of leadership that captures the
  popular imagination and inspires unswerving
  allegiance and devotion.
• A person who has some divinely inspired gift,
  grace, or talent.
• Magnetic charm or appeal.

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Who Wins Elections?
(1932-2000) Year Democrat Republican 1932 Frank
lin Roosevelt? Herbert Hoover 1936 Franklin
Roosevelt? Alf Landon 1940 Franklin
Roosevelt? Wendell Willkie 1944 Franklin
Roosevelt ? Thomas Dewey 1948 Harry
Truman? Thomas Dewey 1952 Adlai Stevenson Dwight
Eisenhower? 1956 Adlai Stevenson Dwight
Eisenhower? 1960 John Kennedy? Richard
Nixon 1964 Lyndon Johnson Barry
Goldwater? 1968 Hubert Humphrey? Richard
Nixon 1972 George McGovern Richard
Nixon? 1976 Jimmy Carter? Gerald Ford 1980 Jimmy
Carter Ronald Reagan? 1984 Walter
Mondale Ronald Reagan? 1988 Michael
Dukakis George Bush? 1992 Bill Clinton? George
Bush 1996 Bill Clinton? Bob Dole 2000 Al
Gore George W. Bush? 2004 John Kerry George W.
Bush?
KEY 89 (17/19) of the elections won by the more
charismatic candidate, irrespective of party
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What Is Charisma?Webers Types of Authority
Authorityforms of domination people will accept

• Traditional
• the status quo rights of a powerful and dominant
  individual or group are accepted (religious,
  cultural, familial, as well as gerontocracy,
  patriarchalism, feudalism)
• Legal/Rational
• domination resting on "rational grounds resting
  on a belief in the legality of enacted rules and
  the right of those elevated to authority under
  such rules to issues commands"
• Charismatic

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What Is Charisma?Charismatic Authority (Ritzer)

• "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity,
  heroism or exemplary character of an individual
  person, and of the normative patterns or order
  revealed or ordained by him"
• Charisma is a quality of an individual
  personality that is considered extraordinary
  followers may consider person to be endowed with
  supernatural or superhuman qualities
• Charisma is a driving and creative force which
  surges through traditional authority and
  established rules
• If the disciples define a leader as charismatic,
  then he or she is likely to be a charismatic
  leader irrespective of whether he or she actually
  possesses any outstanding traits"

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Charisma Communication StyleAn Experimental
manipulation

• Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996) train leader to
  show interest in task and participants'
  performance display nonverbal charismatic
  behaviors, including a powerful, confident, and
  dynamic presence through the following nonverbal
  behaviors
• shaking hands,
• alternating between pacing and leaning forward
  while sitting up straight throughout the
  experiment,
• making eye contact when speaking,
• using hand gestures for emphasis when speaking,
• displaying animated facial expressions when
  speaking,
• using paralinguistic behaviors such as speaking
  with a captivating and engaging voice tone,
  varying the pace and the loudness of speaking,
  and pausing to emphasize points

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Measuring Charisma MLQ

• Talks about his/her most important values and
  beliefs
• Instills pride in me for being associated with
  him/her
• Specifies the importance of having a strong sense
  of purpose
• Goes beyond self-interest for the good of the
  group
• Acts in ways that build my respect
• Considers the moral and ethical consequences of
  decisions
• Displays a sense of power and confidence
• Emphasizes the importance of having a collective
  sense of mission

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Does Charisma Matter?
Quality of Performance on In-Basket
Exercise 1Poor managerial performance 5Excellen
t material performance
Source Howell Frost, OBHDP, 1989
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Does Charisma Matter?Bush v. Gore GW the
Comedian
Source Gallup Poll--August 29, 2000
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Does Charisma Matter?Bush v. Kerry
t3.05, pBush deemed significantly more charismatic
than Kerry the difference was 13
Average Charisma Rating
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Does It Matter? Charisma at FedEx

• 1 criteria for assessing leaders Charisma
• Instills faith, respect and trust, has special
  gift of seeing what others need to consider,
  conveys a strong sense of mission

Score on measure of transformational leadership
in standard deviation units
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How Does Charisma Work? View I

• Three core components of charismatic leadership
  (Kirkpatrick Locke, JAP, 1996)
• communicating a vision
• implementing the vision
• demonstrating a charismatic communication style

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How Does Charisma Work? View I Communicating a
Vision

• A vision is a general transcendent ideal that
  represents shared values it is often ideological
  in nature and has moral overtones
• Vision may be effective because it
• arouses followers' needs and values (House,
  1977),
• is highly discrepant from the status quo but
  still within the realm of acceptance and thus
  challenges followers (Conger Kanungo, 1987), or
  
• generally directs attention toward desired
  outcomes and away from undesired or irrelevant
  aspects of performance.

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How Does Charisma Work? View IVision
Implementation

• A leader must go beyond simply communicating a
  vision in order for it to affect
  followers--serving as an appropriate role model,
  providing individualized support, recognizing
  accomplishments
• Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996) study one aspect of
  vision implementation task cues
• Task cues includes clarifying what is to be
  accomplished or how the task is to be done
  (structuring behaviors, task clarification, task
  strategies, and intellectual stimulation)

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How Does It Work? View I Charismatic
Communication Style

• Charismatic leaders speak with a captivating
  voice tone make direct eye contact show
  animated facial expressions and have a powerful,
  confident, and dynamic interaction style
• A charismatic communication style may be
  effective because it encompasses powerful
  nonverbal tactics that demonstrate commitment to
  the vision show that the leader is energized by
  the vision and reveal a confident, powerful
  presence (Howell Frost, 1989)

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How Does It Work? View IIPhases of Charismatic
Leadership

• Phase I Identification
• Person with charismatic personality perceives a
  social situation as conducive to radical change
• Ascent to leadership begins by recognizing a
  distressed constituency that has passively
  accepted its distressful situation
• Leader articulates a vision of change that
  embodies important shared values with
  constituency and promises a better future
• Phase II Activity Arousal
• Leader expresses confidence in followers ability
  to achieve vision, and leads people to
  participate
• Phase III Commitment
• Leaders make public demonstrations of their
  dedication to the causemay involve significant
  personal sacrifice or even danger
• Whether change becomes routinized depends on
  social situation

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Role of Context--Attribution and Crisis Source
Bligh, Kohles, and Meindl (JAP, 2004)

• Bushs speeches, and press reports, displayed
  more rhetorical characteristics indicative of
  charismatic communication after 9/11 than before

Study 1speeches, Study 2media coverage
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Communicating with Charisma
Patton
MLK, Jr.
Ruth Simmons
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Communicating with Charisma

• Frame your mission around intrinsically appealing
  goals and draw upon your values and beliefs in
  doing so
• When framing the goal, do so in terms of (a) the
  significance of the mission (b) why it has
  arisen in the first place
• Employ metaphors, analogies, and stories when
  speaking
• Allow your emotions to surface as you speak

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Leadership Persuasion

• Storytelling
• Framing
• Persuasive Communication Patterns

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An opportunity for Gain

• A
• You will get 1000 with certainty
• B
• You will have 50 of getting 2500 50 of
  getting 0

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The potential for Loss

• A
• You will lose 1000 with certainty
• B
• You will have 50 chance of losing 2500 50
  chance of losing 0

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Prospect Theory

• In general, decision-makers are risk averse in
  the gain frame risk-seeking in the loss
  frame
• Although expected value of outcomes is identical
  in each frame, preferences for risk shift based
  on how decision scenario is introduced
• This framing effect represents a violation to
  assumptions of procedural invariance in
  traditional economic theories of decision-making
  and risk
• In other wordsour preferences (and our choices)
  are shaped by the manner in which situations are
  introduced

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Leadership Job Characteristics
Source Piccolo and Colquitt (2006)
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Points to Ponder Power

• I am not one of the desk-pounding type that
  likes to stick out his jaw and look like hes
  bossing the show. I would rather try to persuade
  a man to go along, because once I have persuaded
  him he will stick. If I scare him he will just
  stay as long as he is scared, and then be gone.
• Dwight D. Eisenhower

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Points to Ponder Power

• Power is all perception. Its non-use is its
  most powerful use. The trick is to use the least
  amount of power to create the maximum amount of
  change. Someone who has elegance can apply power
  selectively, like a laser, and carefully, almost
  unobtrusively, so that you dont feel youre
  being overpowered. You feel youre being
  motivated.
• Peter Gruber, quoted by Diane K. Shah in New York
  Times Magazine.

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Power is

• based on dependencies
• given to leaders by followers
• situationally dependent
• based (in part) on individual needs
• the exercise of interpersonal influence

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Exercising Influence

• All influential managers have power, but not all
  powerful managers have influence
• How can you convert power into influence?
• Empower those on who you are dependent
• Cultivate networks, mutually beneficial
  relationships with those on whom you are
  dependent
• Utilize influential communication patterns

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Framing

• Framing is the process of selectively using
  frames to invoke a particular image or idea
  (e.g., gain vs. loss).
• We have an interesting challenge ahead of
  us.
• We have a difficult problem to face.
• Political terms such as "tax relief" are
  successful framing devices the frame relates to
  positive cultural metaphors and shapes the
  subsequent discourse.
• The one who brings about pain or distress is bad.
  The one who brings relief is a hero.

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Framing and Setting the Agenda

• From a political perspective, if one considers
  the importance of agenda setting, it becomes
  clear that the concepts of framing and agenda
  setting are linked. Establish the frame ? Set the
  Agenda
• By constantly invoking a particular frame, the
  framing party is able to effectively control the
  discourse and set the agenda.
• Newt Gingrichs Plan for the GOP

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Tax Relief

• On the day that George W. Bush took office, the
  words "tax relief" started appearing in White
  House communiqués.
• By refocusing the structure away from one frame
  (tax burden or tax responsibility) to another
  (tax relief), framers are able to set the
  agenda and direct the nature of questions to be
  asked in future.

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"Framing the Dems How conservatives control
political debate and how progressives can take it
back." The American Prospect. Volume 14 (8),
September 2003.

• "Taxes are an affliction, proponents of taxes are
  the causes of affliction (the villains), the
  taxpayer is the afflicted (the victim) and the
  proponents of tax relief are the heroes who
  deserve the taxpayers' gratitude.
• Those who oppose tax relief are bad guys who want
  to keep relief from the victim of the affliction,
  the taxpayer.
• Every time the phrase tax relief is used, and
  heard or read by millions of people, this view of
  taxation as an affliction and conservatives as
  heroes gets reinforced."

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The President's Agenda for Tax Relief

• The President has proposed a bold and fair tax
  relief plan that will reduce the inequities of
  the current tax code and help ensure that America
  remains prosperous.
• This tax relief plan promotes the values that
  make the American economy second to none --
  access to the middle class, family, equal
  opportunity, and the entrepreneurial spirit.
• This plan will reduce taxes for everyone who pays
  income taxes, and it will encourage enterprise by
  lowering marginal tax rates.

http//www.whitehouse.gov/news/reports/taxplan.htm
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Increasing Tax Fairness

• The current tax code is full of inequities. Many
  single moms face higher marginal tax rates than
  the wealthy. Couples frequently face a higher tax
  burden after they marry.
• The majority of Americans cannot deduct their
  charitable donations. Family farms and businesses
  are sold to pay the death tax. And the owners of
  the most successful small businesses share nearly
  half of their income with the government.
• President Bush's tax cut will greatly reduce
  these inequities. It is a fair plan that is
  designed to provide tax relief to everyone who
  pays income taxes.

http//www.whitehouse.gov/news/reports/taxplan.htm
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Persuasive Language?

• Power vs. Force
• George Carlins Euphemisms

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Anchoring

• Anchoring is a term used in psychology to
  describe the common human tendency to rely too
  heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or one piece
  of information when making decisions.
• During normal decision making, individuals
  anchor, or overly rely, on specific information
  or a specific value - then adjust to that value
  to account for other elements of the
  circumstance.
• Once the anchor is set, there is a bias toward
  that value.
• Example a person looking to buy a used car may
  focus excessively on the odometer reading and the
  year the car was built use those criteria as the
  primary basis for evaluating the value of the car
  -- rather than how well the engine or the
  transmission is maintained.

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Priming Non-conscious Response

• Participants who had been exposed to a instance
  of rude behavior, were more likely to interrupt
  a subsequent conversation than those exposed to a
  polite behavior.
• The subtle priming of college students with words
  associated with senior citizens (e.g., Florida,
  forgetfulness, weak) caused the students to
• walk more slowly out of the experimental session
• have poorer memory of features in the room

Source Bargh Williams (2006)
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Support for the Use of Airbags

• Air bags provide fatality protection in
  potentially fatal crashes.
• Drivers protected by air bags experienced reduced
  fatality risk of 31 percent in purely frontal
  crashes (1200 point of impact on the vehicle),
  19 percent in all frontal crashes (1000 to
  200), and 11 percent in all crashes.

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Airbag Safety

• Based on the 11 percent effectiveness in all
  crashes, it is estimated that air bags have saved
  1,198 lives from 2001 through 2004, including 475
  lives saved in 1995 alone.
• Overall effectiveness rates have steadily
  improved in the major car and truck categories.