Eisenhower

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Eisenhower
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Election of 1952

• Truman did not seek reelection
• Democrats nominated Adlai E. Stevenson
• Republicans nominate Dwight D. Eisenhower
• Richard Nixon for VP
• Eisenhower won 442-89
• First time since 1928 the republicans won
  Southern states.

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The Vital Center

• A political consensus developed in America
• 3 major components in both major parties
• Anti-communism/containment
• Economic growth will solve problems
• Political pluralism
• Elected major presidents until 64
• There will be flaws in the vital center

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Eisenhower "dynamic conservatism"

• Maintained New Deal programs
• Social Security
• Minimum wage
• Interstate Highway system
• Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare

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Eisenhower "dynamic conservatism"

• Strove to balance the budged
• Succeeded 3 times in 8 years
• Reduced defense spending 3
• Tried unsuccessfully to support farmers
• 1959 highest peacetime deficit in US history
• Favored privatizing large government holdings
• Support transfer of offshore oilfields from
  federal government to states.

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Eisenhower "dynamic conservatism"

• Labor Unions grow in power
• AFL and CIO merged in 1955
• AFL-CIO expelled Teamster union in late 1950s
• Jimmy Hoffa
• Landrum-Griffin Act
• Republican lost both houses in 1954 due to
  economic troubles at home.
• Alaska admitted as 49th state in 1958
• Hawaii becomes 50th state in 1959

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Cold War Politics

• Secretary of State John Foster Dulles initiates
  new policy of massive retaliation
• 2 Principals
• Encourage liberation of people in E. Europe
• Massive Retaliation
• He rejects containment
• Begins arms race
• Eisenhower was able to appear as moderate

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New Look Military

• more bang for the buck
• Nuclear force
• Military costs soared
• Eisenhowers Farewell Address

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Vietnam

• Ho Chi Minh
• Communist
• Dien Bien Phu
• Geneva Conference splits Vietnam
• 17th parallel
• Ngo Dinh Diems failure to hold elections divide
  the country
• Dulles created the Southeast Asia Treaty
  Organization (SEATO)
• Domino Theory

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Warsaw Pact

• West Germany welcomed into NATO in 1955
• 1955, Soviets sign Warsaw Pact in response new
  NATO strength in west

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Easing the Cold War tensions

• Stalin died 1953
• Nikita Khrushchev now leader 1955
• "Peaceful coexistence" with the western
  democracies.
• Khrushchev hoped to impress nations in Asia,
  Africa, and Latin America with superiority of
  communism as an economic system.
• U.S.S.R. agrees to leave Austria in May 1955
• Eisenhower moves to relax tensions
• Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)

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Hungarian Uprising 1956

• E. Europeans, inspired by Khrushchevs words,
  begin to seek more freedom in 1956
• Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations
  demanding democracy and independence
• Hungarians inspired by U.S. position to free
  people from communist control
• Soviet tanks soldiers quickly moved in to crush
  uprising
• US unable to help -- nuclear force too much
  "overkill" -- US-Soviet relations sour again

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Sputnik, 1957

• 1957, Soviets launch first ever unmanned
  artificial satellite in orbit
• 1958, US successfully launches its satellite into
  orbit, Explorer I.
• 1958, NASA (National Aeronautics Space Agency) is
  launched by Ike
• Gave Western powers 6 months to vacate West Berlin

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Middle East

• Iran
• CIA engineered coup in Iran
• Suez Crisis       
• Egypt -- Gamal Abdel Nasser becomes president
  (Arab nationalist)  
• Nasser seized nationalized the Suez Canal
• Eisenhower Doctrine
• Empowered the president to extend economic and
  military aid to nations of the Middle East

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Quemoy Matsu

• 1955, Chinese Communists began to shell tiny
  Nationalist island where Jiang Jieshi had
  committed 1/3 of his Taiwanese army.
• Eisenhower received Congressional approval and
  sent the Seventh Fleet to aid Jiang

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Cuba

• Prior to 1959, U.S. companies active in Cuba
• Fidel Castro takes control of Cuba, New Years
  Day, 1959

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CIVIL WAR AMENDMENTS

• 13TH ENDS SLAVERY
• 14TH GRANTS CITIZENSHIP AND THE EQUAL PROTECTION
  OF THE LAW.
• 15TH GRANTS BLACK MEN THE RIGHT TO VOTE.

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THE RETURN OF WHITE SUPREMACY

• RECONSTRUCTION ENDS IN 1877
• FEDERAL PROTECTION IS REMOVED.
• JIM CROW (SEGREGATION) LAWS ARE PASSED.
• LITERACY TESTS, POLL TAXES, AND INTIMIDATION
  TAKES AWAY VOTING RIGHTS.

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THE SUPREME COURT RATIFIES SEGREGATION

• PLESSY V FERGUSON 1896 ESTABLISHES THE SEPARATE
  BUT EQUAL RULE.

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• Eisenhower did not intend to be a "civil rights"
  president. -- Yet he was president during some of
  the most significant civil rights gains in U.S.
  history.
• 1940s -- NAACP began to attack "separate but
  equal" by suing segregated colleges and
  universities African Americans gained entrance
  into Southern universities. -- Elementary and
  secondary schools remained segregated.
• Earl Warren appointed by Eisenhower as Chief
  Justice of the Supreme Court in1953 -- Although
  viewed as a conservative, Warren would become the
  most significant Chief Justice of the 20th
  century and lead most liberal court of the 20th
  century.

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BLACK LEADERSHIP IS DIVIDED

• BOOKER T. WASHINGTON ARGUES FOR ACCOMMODATION
• W.E.B. DuBOIS ARGUES FOR CONFRONTATION AND LEGAL
  ACTION.
• FORMS THE NIAGARA MOVEMENT AND THE NAACP.

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MARCUS GARVEY

• ARGUES FOR SEGREGATION
• SELF HELP
• RACIAL PRIDE
• AND A RETURN TO AFRICA

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THE CIVIL RIGHTS CHALLENGE

• DE JURI SEGREGATION FOUND IN THE SOUTH. LAWS
  IMPOSE SEGREGATION.
• DE FACTO SEGREGATION SEGREGATION BY CUSTOM AND
  HOUSING PATTERNS. NOT ENFORCED BY LAW. FOUND IN
  THE NORTH AND THE WEST.

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TRUMAN AND CIVIL RIGHTS

• SUPPORTS NEW CIVIL RIGHTS LAW 1946
• CREATES THE CIVIL RIGHTS COMMISSION.
• BANS DISCRIMINATION IN DEFENSE PLANTS.
• DE SEGREGATES THE MILITARY IN 1948 BY EXECUTIVE
  ORDER.

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• Chief Justice Earl Warren persuaded fellow
  justices to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson.
• "Separate educational facilities are inherently
  unequal. It has no place in public education.
• One year later, Court ordered school integration
  "with all deliberate speed."

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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954

• NAACP filed suit on behalf of Linda Brown, a
  black elementary school student.
• Topeka school board had denied Brown admission to
  an all-white school.
• Case reached Supreme Court in 1954
• Thurgood Marshall represented Linda Brown
• Charged that public school segregation violated
  the "equal protection" clause of the 14th
  Amendment to the Constitution.
• Segregation deprived blacks an equal educational
  opportunity.
• Separate could not be equal because segregation
  in itself lowered the morale and motivation of
  black students.

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Response to Brown v. Board of Education

• Southern officials considered ruling a threat to
  state and local authority.
• Eisenhower felt govt should not try to force
  segregation. -- Called appointment of Warren "my
  biggest mistake."
• 80 of southern whites opposed Brown decision.
• Some white students, encouraged by parents,
  refused to attend integrated schools.
• KKK reemerged in a much more violent incarnation
  than in 1920s.
• Southern state legislatures passed more than 450
  laws and resolutions aimed at preventing
  enforcement of Brown decision.
• "Massive Resistance" -- 1956, Virginia state
  legislature passed a massive resistance measure
  cutting off state aid to desegregated schools.
• By 1962, only one-half of one percent of
  non-white school children in the South were in
  integrated schools.

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• Student movement
• Nonviolence of students provoked increasingly
  hostile actions from those who opposed them. --
  Some blacks were beaten, and harassed by white
  teen-agers.
• Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee created
  by SCLC to better organize the movement. (SNCC
  pronounced "snick")
• "Jail not Bail" became the popular slogan.
• Students adopted civil disobedience when
  confronted with jail.
• End of "Massive Resistance" -- 1959, federal and
  state courts nullified Virginia laws which
  prevented state funds from going to integrated
  schools.

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GEORGE WALLACE

• GOVERNOR OF ALABAMA SEGREGATION NOW AND
  SEGREGATION FOREVER.

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THE MOVEMENT BEGINS

• DEC. 1955 ROSA PARKS REFUSES TO GIVE UP HER SEAT
  ON A BUS.
• THE MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT BEGINS ORGANIZED BY
  MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN
  LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE.
• LAST 381 DAYS
• SUPREME COURT ORDER DESEGREGATION OF THE BUSES.

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Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56)

• December 11, 1955, Rosa Parks arrested in
  Montgomery, Alabama, after refusing to give her
  bus seat to a white man she was ordered to sit
  at the back of the bus. -- Found guilty and fined
  14 over 150 others arrested and charged as well
  for boycotting buses during the following months.
  
• Immediate calls for boycott ensued nearly 80 of
  bus users were African Americans.
• Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., leader of Dexter
  Avenue Baptist Church, became a leader of the
  boycott emerged as leader of civil rights
  movement.
• Montgomery bus boycott lasted nearly 400 days.
• Kings house was bombed.
• 88 other African American leaders were arrested
  and fined for conspiring to boycott.
• Supreme Court ruled that segregation on
  Montgomery buses was unconstitutional. -- On
  December 20, 1956, segregationists gave up.

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Response to Brown v. Board of Education

• Crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957
• Gov. Orval Faubus ordered National Guard to
  surround Central High School to prevent nine
  black students ("Little Rock Nine") from entering
  the school.
• Federal court ordered removal of National Guard
  and allowed students to enter. -- Riots erupted
  and forced Eisenhower to act.
• Eisenhower reluctantly ordered 1000 federal
  troops into Little Rock and nationalized the
  Arkansas National Guard, this time protecting
  students. -- First time since Reconstruction a
  president had sent federal troops into South to
  enforce the Constitution.
• Next year, Little Rock public schools closed
  entirely.
• White attended private schools or outside city
  schools.
• Most blacks had no school to attend.
• August 1959, Little Rock school board gave in to
  integration after another Supreme Court ruling.

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CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

• KING ADOPTS CIVIL NON-VIOLENT DISOBEDIENCE AS A
  METHOD OF PROTEST.
• LETTERS FROM THE BIRMINGHAM JAIL BY MARTIN
  LUTHER KING, JR.
• JUST LAWS AND UNJUST LAWS

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Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
  -- King President in Jan. 1957
• Nonviolent resistance
• King urged followers not to fight with
  authorities even if provoked.
• Kings nonviolent tactics similar to Mohandas
  Gandhi (both were inspired by Henry David
  Thoreaus On Civil Disobedience)
• Use of moral arguments to changed minds of
  oppressors.
• King linked nonviolence to Christianity "Love
  ones enemy."
• Sit-ins became effective new strategy of
  nonviolence.
• Students in universities and colleges all over
  U.S. vowed to integrate lunch counters, hotels,
  and entertainment facilities.
• Greensboro sit-in (Feb. 1960) First sit-in by 4
  North Carolina college freshmen at a Woolworth
  lunch counter for student being refused service.
  -- After thousands participated in the sit-in
  merchants in Greensboro gave in 6 months later
• A wave of sit-ins occurred throughout the
  country. -- Targets were southern stores of
  national chains.
• Variations of sit-ins emerged "kneel-ins" for
  churches "read-ins" in libraries "wade-ins" at
  beaches "sleep-ins" in motel lobbies.

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SIT-IN DEMONSTRATIONS

• ORGANIZED BY STUDENT NON-VIOLENT COORDINATING
  COMMITTEE
• GREENSBORO, N.C. 1960
• SIT-INS CALL ATTENTION TO UNJUST SEGREGATION LAWS

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THE FREEDOM RIDERS

• COLLEGE STUDENT (BLACK AND WHITE) RIDE BUSES
  SOUTH TO DE-SEGREGATE BUS WAITING ROOMS.
• BUSES ARE BOMBED
• FREEDOM RIDERS BEATEN.

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Freedom Rides

• CORE test Supreme Court decision to ban
  segregated seating on interstate bus routes
• Wanted a violent reaction
• White racist got on bus one
• Used chains, brass knuckles, and pistols
• Beat Freedom Riders.
• Bus Two was also attacked, and threw fire bombs
  into the bus
• SNCC met them to continue the ride
• Bus drivers feared their life, and did not want
  to continuethey were forced to do so.
• White racists attacked the bus in Montgomerygot
  the reaction they needed and Kennedy gave them
  the support they needed with 400 US Marshalls.

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THE MARCH ON WASHINGTON

• 1963 HUNDREDS OF THOUSAND FILL THE MALL TO HEARD
  KINGS I HAVE A DREAM SPEECH.
• THE SPEECH CAPTURES THE IMAGINATION THE THE
  PEOPLE.

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THE MARCH ON MONTGOMERY

• 1965- BLACK AND WHITES MARCH FROM SELMA TO
  MONTGOMERY TO PROTEST SEGREGATION IN ALABAMA.
• THERE IS VIOLENCE ON THE BRIDGE ENTERING
  MONTGOMERY.
• PRESIDENT JOHNSON SEND FEDERAL MARSHALS TO
  PROTECT THE MARCHERS.

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JOHNSON CIVIL RIGHT ACTS

• JOHNSON CALLS FOR PASSAGE OF THE VOTING RIGHTS
  ACT IN A SPEECH.
• HE ENDS THE SPEECH WITH THE PHRASE WE SHALL
  OVERCOME.
• CONGRESS PASSES THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT.

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DR. KING MOVES NORTH

• CALL FOR AN END TO DE FACTO SEGREGATION.

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MORE MILITANT VOICES

• THE BLACK MUSLIMS AND ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
• MALCOLM X
• MURDERED IN 1965
• STOCKLEY CARMICHAEL BLACK POWER.

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THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

• LEADER HEWY NEWTON
• FORMS THEIR OWN MILITIA
• SEVERAL VIOLENT ENCOUNTERS WITH THE POLICE.

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MARTIN LUTHER KING IS MURDERED.

• APRIL 1968
• CONGRESS PASSES THE CIVIL RIGHT ACT OF 1968
• OUTLAWS DISCRIMINATION IN PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS

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