Diapositiva 1

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Space Shuttle
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NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called Space
Transportation System (STS), is the United States
government's current manned launch vehicle. A
total of five usable orbiters were built, of
which three remain. The winged shuttle orbiter is
launched vertically, usually carrying five to
seven astronauts (although eight have been
carried and eleven could be accommodated in an
emergency) and up to 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) of
payload into low earth orbit (the thermosphere).
When its mission is complete, it fires its
maneuvering thrusters to drop out of orbit and
re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. During the
descent and landing, the shuttle orbiter acts as
a glider and makes a completely unpowered
landing. The Shuttle is the first orbital
spacecraft designed for partial reusability. It
carries large payloads to various orbits,
provides crew rotation for the International
Space Station (ISS), and performs servicing
missions. The orbiter can also recover satellites
and other payloads from orbit and return them to
Earth, but this capacity has not been used often.
However, it has been used to return large
payloads from the ISS to Earth, as the Russian
Soyuz spacecraft has limited capacity for return
payloads. Each Shuttle was designed for a
projected lifespan of 100 launches or 10 years'
operational life. NASA announced in 2004 that the
Space Shuttle will be retired in 2010 and
replaced by the Orion, a new vehicle that is
designed to take humans to the Moon and beyond.
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Shuttles are each a partially reusable launch
system composed of three main assemblies the
reusable Orbiter Vehicle (OV), the expendable
External Tank (ET), and the two
partially-reusable Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs).
The tank and boosters are jettisoned during
ascent only the orbiter goes into orbit. The
vehicle is launched vertically like a
conventional rocket, and the orbiter glides to a
horizontal landing, after which it is refurbished
for reuse.
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External Tank arrives by Barge from MS
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External Tank
Vertical Assembly Building
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Removing External Tank from carrier
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External Tank The External Tank (ET) provides
approximately 535,000 U.S. gallons (2.025 million
liters) of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
propellant to the SSMEs. It is discarded 8.5
minutes after launch at an altitude of 60
nautical miles (111 km), and then burns up on
re-entry. The ET is constructed mostly of ? inch
thick aluminium-lithium alloy. The external
tanks of the first two missions were painted
white, which added an extra 600 pounds (273 kg)
of weight to each ET. Subsequent missions have
had unpainted tanks showing the natural
orange-brown color of the spray-on foam
insulation. The lighter, unpainted tanks have
increased the payload capacity by almost the
entire weight savings of 600 pounds
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External Tank enters VAB
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External Tank in VAB
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Preparing to lift the Tank to vertical
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Lifting the Tank
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Solid Rockets are attached
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Solid Rocket Boosters Two Solid Rocket Boosters
(SRBs) each provide 2.8 million lbs of thrust at
liftoff. They are jettisoned two minutes after
launch at a height of about 150,000 feet (45.7
km), then deploy parachutes and land in the ocean
to be recovered. The SRB cases are made of steel
about ½ inch (1.27 cm) thick.
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Engines are attached to Solids
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Engines are attached to the Shuttle in the
Shuttle Processing Facility
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Shuttle in sling ready for lifting In VAB
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Orbiter Vehicle The Orbiter resembles an
aircraft with double-delta wings, swept 81 at
the inner leading edge and 45 at the outer
leading edge. Its vertical stabilizer's leading
edge is swept back at a 50 angle. The four
elevons, mounted at the trailing edge of the
wings, and the rudder/speed brake, attached at
the trailing edge of the stabilizer, with the
body flap, control the Orbiter during descent and
landing. The Orbiter has a large 60 by 15 ft (18
m by 4.6 m) payload bay, filling most of the
fuselage. Three Space Shuttle Main Engines
(SSMEs) are mounted on the Orbiter's aft fuselage
in a triangular pattern. The three engines can
swivel 10.5 degrees up and down and 8.5 degrees
from side to side during ascent to change the
direction of their thrust and steer the Shuttle
as well as push. The orbiter structure is made
primarily from aluminium alloy, although the
engine thrust structure is made from titanium
(alloy).
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Shuttle has been moved to VAB and will be
attached to External Tank
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Flight systems Space Shuttle structural
overview. Early Shuttle missions took along the
GRiD Compass, arguably one of the first laptop
computers. The Compass sold poorly, because it
cost at least 8000, but offered unmatched
performance for its weight and size. NASA was one
of its main customers. The Shuttle was one of
the earliest craft to use a computerized
fly-by-wire digital flight control system. This
means no mechanical or hydraulic linkages connect
the pilot's control stick to the control surfaces
or reaction control system thrusters. A primary
concern with digital fly-by-wire systems is
reliability. Much research went into the Shuttle
computer system. The Shuttle uses five identical
redundant IBM 32-bit general purpose computers
(GPCs), model AP-101, constituting a type of
embedded system. Four computers run specialized
software called the Primary Avionics Software
System (PASS). A fifth backup computer runs
separate software called the Backup Flight System
(BFS). Collectively they are called the Data
Processing System (DPS).
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Atlantis deploys landing gear before landing on a
selected runway just like a common aircraft.The
design goal of the Shuttle's DPS is fail
operational/fail safe reliability. After a single
failure the Shuttle can continue the mission.
After two failures it can land safely. The four
general-purpose computers operate essentially in
lockstep, checking each other. If one computer
fails, the three functioning computers "vote" it
out of the system. This isolates it from vehicle
control. If a second computer of the three
remaining fails, the two functioning computers
vote it out. In the rare case of two out of four
computers simultaneously failing (a two-two
split), one group is picked at random. The
Backup Flight System (BFS) is separately
developed software running on the fifth computer,
used only if the entire four-computer primary
system fails. The BFS was created because
although the four primary computers are hardware
redundant, they all run the same software, so a
generic software problem could crash all of them.
Embedded system avionic software is developed
under totally different conditions from public
commercial software, the number of code lines is
tiny compared to a public commercial software,
changes are only made infrequently and with
extensive testing, and many programming and test
personnel work on the small amount of computer
code. However in theory it can still fail, and
the BFS exists for that contingency.
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The software for the Shuttle computers is written
in a high-level language called HAL/S, somewhat
similar to PL/I. It is specifically designed for
a real time embedded system environment. The IBM
AP-101 computers originally had about 424
kilobytes of magnetic core memory each. The CPU
could process about 400,000 instructions per
second. They have no hard disk drive and load
software from magnetic tape cartridges. In 1990
the original computers were replaced with an
upgraded model AP-101S, which has about 2.5 times
the memory capacity (about 1 megabyte) and three
times the processor speed (about 1.2 million
instructions per second). The memory was changed
from magnetic core to semiconductor with battery
backup. During STS-101, Atlantis was the first
Shuttle to fly with a glass cockpit.Internally
the Shuttle remains largely similar to the
original design, with the exception of the
improved avionics computers. In addition to the
computer upgrades, the original vector graphics
monochrome cockpit displays were replaced with
modern full-color, flat-panel display screens,
similar to contemporary airliners like the Airbus
A320. This is called a "glass cockpit". In the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project tradition, programmable
calculators are carried as well (originally the
HP-41C). With the coming of the ISS, the
Orbiter's internal airlocks have been replaced
with external docking systems to allow for a
greater amount of cargo to be stored on the
Shuttle's mid-deck during Station re-supply
missions.
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Shuttle is attached
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The Space Shuttle Main Engines have had several
improvements to enhance reliability and power.
This explains phrases such as "Main engines
throttling up to 104." This does not mean the
engines are being run over a safe limit. The 100
figure is the original specified power level.
During the lengthy development program,
Rocketdyne determined the engine was capable of
safe reliable operation at 104 of the originally
specified thrust. They could have rescaled the
output number, saying in essence 104 is now
100. However this would have required revising
much previous documentation and software, so the
104 number was retained. SSME upgrades are
denoted as "block numbers", such as block I,
block II, and block IIA. The upgrades have
improved engine reliability, maintainability and
performance. The 109 thrust level was finally
reached in flight hardware with the Block II
engines in 2001. The normal maximum throttle is
104, with 106 and 109 available for abort
emergencies. On the first four Shuttle missions,
astronauts wore modified U.S. Air Force
high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included
a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent.
From the fifth flight, STS-5, until the loss of
Challenger, one-piece light blue nomex flight
suits and partial-pressure helmets were worn. A
less-bulky, partial-pressure version of the
high-altitude pressure suits with a helmet was
reinstated when Shuttle flights resumed in 1988.
The LES ended its service life in late 1995, and
was replaced by the full-pressure Advanced Crew
Escape Suit (ACES), which resembles the Gemini
space suit worn in the mid-1960's. To extend the
duration that Orbiter can stay docked at the ISS,
the Station-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS)
was installed. This modification allows Orbiter
to use power provided by the ISS and to preserve
its consumables onboard.
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Payload Preparation Room (PPR)
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Cargo Package For ISS
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New Module For ISS
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Payload ready to be moved to the Launch Pad
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Payload Carrier leaves PPR
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Payload being moved to Launch Pad
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Lifting Payload into position for insertion
into Shuttle when it arrives at the Pad
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Shuttle leaves VAB
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Shuttle Crawler
TRIP Length. 3 ½ mi Time. 6-8 hours
Launch Pad
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Crawler Control
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Shuttle arrives at Pad
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Ready for Launch
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Launch The shuttle will not be launched under
conditions where it could be struck by lightning.
Aircraft are often struck by lightning with no
adverse effects because the electricity of the
strike is dissipated through its conductive
structure and the aircraft is not electrically
grounded. Like most jet airliners, the shuttle is
mainly constructed of conductive aluminium, which
would normally protect the internal systems.
However, upon takeoff the shuttle sends out a
long exhaust plume as it ascends, and this plume
can trigger lightning by providing a current path
to ground. While the shuttle might safely endure
a lightning strike, a similar strike caused
problems on Apollo 12, so for safety NASA chooses
not to launch the shuttle if lightning is possible
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We have lift off!
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In the lower atmosphere the Orbiter flies much
like a conventional glider, except for a much
higher descent rate, over 10,000 feet (3 km) per
minute. It glides with a ratio of 11.8 At
approximately Mach 3, two air data probes,
located on the left and right sides of the
Orbiter's forward lower fuselage, are deployed to
sense air pressure related to vehicle's movement
in the atmosphere. When the approach and landing
phase begins, the Orbiter is at 10,000 ft (3048
m) altitude, 7.5 miles (12.1 km) to the runway.
The pilots apply aerodynamic braking to help slow
down the vehicle. The Orbiter's speed is reduced
from 424 mph (682 km/h) to approximately 215 mph
(346 km/h), (compared to 160 mph for a jet
airliner), at touch-down. The landing gear is
deployed while the Orbiter is flying at 267 mph
(430 km/h). To assist the speed brakes, a 40 ft
(12.2 m) drag chute is deployed once the nose
gear touches down at about 213 mph (343 km/h). It
is jettisoned as the Orbiter slows through 69 mph
(111 km/h).
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Landing The outside of the Shuttle heats to
over 1,500 C during reentry. The vehicle begins
reentry by firing the OMS engines, while flying
upside down backside first, in the opposite
direction to orbital motion for about three
minutes. The resulting deceleration of the
Shuttle lowers its orbit perigee down into the
atmosphere. The shuttle flips over by pulling its
nose up (which then becomes "down" because flying
upside down). This OMS firing is done roughly
halfway around the globe from the landing site.
The entire reentry, except for lowering the
landing gear and deploying the air data probes,
is then under computer control. However the
reentry can be and has (once) been flown
manually. The final landing can be done on
autopilot, but is usually hand flown. The
vehicle starts significantly entering the
atmosphere at about 400,000 ft (120 km) at around
Mach 25 (8.2 km/s). The vehicle is controlled by
a combination of RCS thrusters and control
surfaces, to fly at a 40 degrees nose-up attitude
producing high drag, not only to slow it down to
landing speed, but also to reduce reentry
heating. In addition, the vehicle needs to bleed
off extra speed before reaching the landing site.
This is achieved by performing s-curves at up to
a 70 degree roll angle.
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After landing, the vehicle stands on the runway
for several minutes to permit the fumes from
poisonous hydrazine, used as propellant for
attitude control, to dissipate, and for the
shuttle fuselage to cool before the astronauts
disembark. Conditions permitting, the Space
Shuttle will always land at Kennedy Space Center.
However, if the conditions make landing there
unfavorable, the Shuttle can touch down at
Edwards Air Force Base in California or at other
sites (Diego Garcia). A landing at Edwards means
that the shuttle must be mated to the Shuttle
Carrier Aircraft and returned to Cape Canaveral,
costing NASA roughly an additional million
dollars. A Space Shuttle (STS-3, Columbia) has
also landed once at the White Sands Space Harbor
in New Mexico, but this is often a last resort,
as NASA scientists believe that the sand could
cause damage to the shuttle's exterior.
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Space Shuttle Program Benefits Industry and Health
October 11, 2000 National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA)
For nearly two decades, the space shuttle has
been the cornerstone of the U.S. space program --
the world's only reusable spacecraft. It's the
first vehicle in the history of space flight that
can carry large cargoes, such as satellites and
spacecraft parts, both to and from orbit. During
construction of the International Space Station,
the Space Shuttle will serve as the world's
largest and most sophisticated moving van,
carrying astronauts, cosmonauts and literally
tons of equipment and supplies to the new outpost
in orbit. The technology used to create the most
versatile and most advanced spacecraft ever built
also touches the lives of people here on Earth.
After nearly 100 flights, the benefits to
industry, medical research, and to the quality of
daily life easily match the number of missions.
More than 100 documented NASA technologies from
the Space Shuttle are now incorporated into the
tools you use, the foods you eat, and the
biotechnology and medicines used to improve your
health. "We often take for granted the returns on
NASA's past investments Everything from global
satellite telecommunications to disposable
diapers are the result of our investment in space
technology," said NASA Administrator Daniel S.
Goldin. "The mission of the Space Shuttle is no
different. The program's goal is to play a lead
role in opening the space frontier, but it's also
about bringing the discoveries of the Space
Shuttle into your home." Following are some
examples of shuttle-based technologies 3-D
Biotechnology Developed for Space Shuttle
medical research, a rotating cell-culture device
simulates the microgravity of space. This allows
researchers to grow cells in three dimensions.
The device may one day help researchers find
cures for dangerous infectious diseases and offer
alternatives to patients who need organ
transplant surgery.
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Artificial Heart Technology used in Space
Shuttle fuel pumps led to the development of a
miniaturized ventricular-assist pump by NASA and
renowned heart surgeon Dr. Michael DeBakey. The
tiny pump, a mere two inches long, one inch in
diameter, and weighing less than four ounces, is
currently undergoing clinical trials in Europe,
where it has been successfully implanted into
more than 20 people. Blood Serum Research An
astronaut's body, once free of gravity's pull,
experiences a redistribution of body fluids that
can lead to a decrease in the number of red blood
cells and produce a form of space anemia.
Monitoring and evaluating blood serum was
required to understand these phenomena. However,
existing blood-analysis technology required the
use of a centrifugation technology that was not
practical in space. NASA developed new
technologies for the collection and real-time
analysis of blood as well as other bodily fluids
without the need for centrifugation. Artificial
Limbs Responding to a request from the
orthopedic-appliance industry, NASA recommended
that the foam insulation used to protect the
Shuttle's external tank replace the heavy,
fragile plaster used to produce master molds for
prosthetics. The new material is light, virtually
indestructible, and easy to ship and store. Life
saving Light Especial lighting technology
developed for plant-growth experiments on Space
Shuttle missions is now used to treat brain
tumors in children. Doctors at the Medical
College of Wisconsin in Milwaukee use
light-emitting diodes in a treatment called
photodynamic therapy, a form of chemotherapy, to
kill cancerous tumors. Taking
Temperatures Infrared sensors developed to
remotely measure the temperature of distant stars
and planets for the Space Shuttle program led to
the development of the hand-held optical sensor
thermometer. Placed inside the ear canal, the
thermometer provides an accurate reading in two
seconds or less.
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Better Balance Devices built to measure the
equilibrium of Space Shuttle astronauts when they
return from space are now widely used by major
medical centers to diagnose and treat patients
suffering head injury, stroke, chronic dizziness
and disorders of the central nervous
system. Faster Diagnostics NASA technology was
used to create a compact laboratory instrument
for hospitals and doctor offices. This device
quickly analyzes blood, accomplishing in 30
seconds what once took 20 minutes with
conventional equipment. Land Mine Removal The
same rocket fuel that helps launch the Space
Shuttle is now being used to save lives -- by
destroying land mines. A flare device, using
leftover fuel donated by NASA, is placed next to
the uncovered land mine and is ignited from a
safe distance using a battery-triggered electric
match. The explosive burns away, disabling the
mine and rendering it harmless. Tracking
Vehicles on Earth Tracking information originally
used for Space Shuttle missions now helps track
vehicles here on the ground. This commercial
spin-off allows vehicles to transmit a signal
back to a home base. Many cities today use the
software to track and reassign emergency and
public works vehicles. The technology also is
used by vehicle fleet operations, such as taxis,
armored cars and vehicles carrying hazardous
cargo. Rescue 911 Rescue squads have a new
extrication tool to help remove accident victims
from wrecked vehicles. The hand-held device
requires no auxiliary power systems or cumbersome
hoses and is 70 percent cheaper than previous
rescue equipment. The cutter uses a miniature
version of the explosive charges that separate
devices on the Space Shuttle. Byte Out of
Crime Image-processing technology used to analyze
Space Shuttle launch videos and to study
meteorological images also helps law enforcement
agencies improve crime-solving videos. The
technology removes defects due to image jitter,
image rotation and image zoom in video sequences.
The technology also may be useful for medical
imaging, scientific applications and home video.

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Gas Gauges A gas leak-detection system,
originally developed to monitor the Shuttle's
hydrogen propulsion system, is now being used by
the Ford Motor Company in the production of a
natural gas-powered car. Product Labeling NASA
needs to identify, track, and keep records on
each of the thousands of heat-shield tiles on the
Space Shuttle. This required a labeling system
that could be put on ceramic material and
withstand the rigors of space travel to be
readable after a flight. NASA developed high
data-density, two-dimensional, machine-readable
symbol technology used to mark individual tiles.
This novel method of labeling products with
invisible and virtually indestructible markings
can be used on electronic parts, pharmaceuticals
and livestock -- in fact on just about anything.
Keep Cool Under Fire Materials from the Space
Shuttle thermal protection system are used on
NASCAR racing cars to protect drivers from the
extreme heat generated by the engines. This same
material is also used to protect firefighters.
Fire Resistant Foam A unique foam developed
for Space Shuttle thermal insulation and packing
is now being used as thermal and acoustical
insulation in aerospace, marine and industrial
products. Since it's also fire resistant, it's
being used as well for fire barriers, packaging
and other applications requiring either
high-temperature or very low-temperature
insulation in critical environments. For example,
use of these foam products by airframe
manufacturers such as Boeing, Lockheed-Martin,
and Airbus provides major weight savings, while
retaining good thermal and acoustical properties
in the various products. Fire Sighting A
sensitive, gas infrared camera, used by NASA
observers to monitor the blazing plumes from the
Space Shuttle's solid rocket boosters is also
capable of scanning for fires. Firefighters use
this hand-held camera to pinpoint the hotspots of
wildfires that rage out of control.
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Jeweler's Gem Jewelers no longer have to worry
about inhaling dangerous asbestos fibers from the
blocks they use as soldering bases. Space Shuttle
heat-shield tiles offer jewelers a safer
soldering base with temperature resistance far
beyond the 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit generated by
the jeweler's torch. Jet Stripping NASA
developed a tool that uses powerful jet streams
of water to strip paint and primer from the Space
Shuttle's solid rocket boosters. A commercial
version of this water jet is now used to treat
turbine-engine components, airframe components,
large aerospace hardware, ships and other
mechanical devices, using only pure water. No
hazardous chemicals are needed. Quick Fit
Fasteners Fastening items in space is a
difficult task. A Virginia company developed a
fastener that can be pushed on, rather than
turned. These quick-connect fasteners are
flexible and strong, and have been used by NASA
astronauts since 1989. The product is now in use
by firefighters and nuclear power-plant repair
technicians, and has other commercial
applications. Computer Joysticks Computer
games can now be played with all the precision
and sensitivity needed for a safe and soft Space
Shuttle touchdown. A game-controlling joystick
for personal computer-based entertainment systems
was modeled after controls used in shuttle
simulators. Astronauts used the joystick to
practice runway landings and orbit maneuvering.
Toys for Tots Already successful with its Nerf
toy products, Hasbro, Inc. wanted to design a toy
glider that a child could fly. Benefiting from
NASA wind-tunnel and aerodynamic expertise used
in the Space Shuttle program, Hasbro improved the
flying distances and loop-to-loop stunts of its
toy gliders. Slick Products A lubricant used
on the transporter that carries a Space Shuttle
to the launch pad has resulted in a commercial
penetrating-spray lube, which is used for rust
prevention and loosening corroded nuts. It's also
a cleaner and lubricant for guns and fishing
reels, and can be used to reduce engine friction.
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Technical data Orbiter Specifications (for
Endeavour, OV-105) Length 122.17 ft (37.24 m)
Wingspan 78.06 ft (23.79 m) Height 58.58 ft
(17.25 m) Empty Weight 151,205 lb (68,586.6 kg)
Gross Liftoff Weight 240,000 lb (109,000 kg)
Maximum Landing Weight 230,000 lb (104,000 kg)
Main Engines Three Rocketdyne Block 2 A SSMEs,
each with a sea level thrust of 393,800 lbf
(178,624 kgf / 1.75 MN) Maximum Payload 55,250
lb (25,061.4 kg) Payload Bay dimensions 15 ft
by 60 ft (4.6 m by 18.3 m) Operational Altitude
100 to 520 nmi (185 to 1,000 km) Speed 25,404
ft/s (7,643 m/s, 27,875 km/h, 17,321 mi/h) Cross
range 1,085 nautical miles (2,009.4 km) Crew
Seven (Commander, Pilot, two Mission Specialists,
and three Payload Specialists), two for minimum.
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