MOTIVATION THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS MODEL OF MOTIVATION A

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MOTIVATION
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THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS MODEL OF MOTIVATION

• A managers job is to identify employees drives
  and needs and to channel their behavior, to
  motivate them, toward task performance.
• Motivation has a direct relationship with
  Performance and employees Ability.
• Thus we can consider Potential Performance (P) as
  a product of Ability (A) and Motivation (M).
• 
  P A M.
• Results occur when motivated employees are
  provided with opportunity (Such as training) to
  perform and the Resources (such as Proper tools)
  to do so.
• The presence of goals and awareness of incentives
  to satisfy ones needs are also powerful
  motivational factors leading to the release of
  effort.
• When an employee is productive and the
  organization takes note of it, Rewards will be
  distributed.
• It should be apparent, therefore, that an
  important starting point lies in understanding of
  employee needs.

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Environment
Opportunity
Needs and drives
Tension
Effort
Performance
Rewards
Ability
Goals and incentives
Need satisfaction

• If those rewards are appropriate in nature,
  timing and distribution, the employees original
  needs and derives are satisfied. At that time new
  needs may emerge and the cycle will begin again.
• The above Model of Motivation attempts to help
  managers understand how employees internal needs
  affect their subsequent behaviors.

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MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES

• People tend to develop certain motivational
  drives as a product of cultural environment in
  which they live, and these drives effect the way
  people view their jobs and approach their lives.
• Peoples motivational drives reflect elements of
  Culture in which they grow up their family,
  school, religion and books.
• In most nations, one or two of the motivational
  patterns tend to be strong among the workers
  because they have grown up with similar
  backgrounds.

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• McClelland's research focused on the following
  three drives
• Achievement A drive to accomplish objectives
  and get ahead
• Affiliation A drive to relate people
  effectively
• Power A drive to influence people
  and situations

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Achievement Motivation

• Achievement motivation is a drive some people
  have to pursue and attain goals.
• An individual with this drive wishes to achieve
  objectives and advance up to ladder of success.
  Accomplishment is seen as important primarily
  for its own sake, not just for the rewards that
  accompany it.
• A number of Characteristics define
  Achievement-oriented employees. They work harder
  when they perceive that
• - When they will receive personal credit
  for their effort,
• - When there is only moderate risk of
  failure ,
• - When drive for achievement
• - Take responsibility for
  their actions and results,
• - Control their destiny,
  seek regular feedback, and
  enjoy being part of a winning achievement
  through individual or
  collective effort.
• Managers with strong need for Affiliation may
  have difficulty being
• effective managers

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Affiliation Motivation

• Affiliation motivation is a drive to relate to
  people on a social basis.
• Comparisons of Achievement-motivated employees
  with Affiliation-motivated employees
• Achievement-oriented people work harder when
  their supervisors provide detailed evaluations of
  their work behavior. Whereas people with
  Affiliation motives work better when they are
  complemented for their favorable attitudes and
  cooperation.
• Achievement-motivated people select assistants
  who are technically capable, with little regard
  for personal feelings about them. Whereas
  Affiliation-motivated tend to select friends to
  surround them. They receive inner satisfactions
  from being with friends, and they want the job
  freedom to develop those relationship.
• Managers with strong needs for Affiliation may
  have difficulty being effective managers.
• Affiliation-oriented managers may have difficulty
  assigning challenging tasks, directing work
  activities, and monitoring work effectiveness.

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Power Motivation

• Power Motivation is a drive to influence people
  and change situations.
• Power motivated people wish to create and impact
  on their organizations and are willing to take
  risk to do so. Once this power is obtained, it
  may used either constructively or destructively.
• Power-motivated people make excellent Managers if
  their drives are for institutional power instead
  of personal power.
• Institutional power is the need to influence
  others behavior for the good of the whole
  organization. People seek power through
  legitimate means, rise to leadership positions
  through successful performance, and therefore are
  accepted by others.
• If an employees derives are toward Personal
  power, that person tends to be unsuccessful
  organizational Leader.

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Managerial Application of the Drives

• Knowledge of the differences among the three
  Motivational Drives requires Managers to
  understand the work attitudes of each employee.
• Managers have to deal with employees differently
  according to their strongest Motivational Drives
  that they identify in each employee in order to
  communicates with each employee according to
  their particular personal needs.

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HUMAN NEEDS

• There are several ways to classify Human needs.
• 1. Basic Physical needs called primary needs,
• Physical needs include food, water, sleep, air
  and reasonable comfortable temperatures.
• Physical needs are, therefore, virtually
  universal, but they vary in intensity from
  one person to another. (e.g. a child needs much
  more sleep than an older person.
• 2. Social and Psychological needs, called
  secondary needs.
• Secondary needs are more vague because they
  represent needs of the mind and spirit
  rather than of the physical body.
• Many Secondary needs are developed as
  people mature. (e.g. self-esteem, sense of
  duty, competitiveness, self assertion and to
  given, belonging and receiving affection.
• Secondary needs complicate the
  motivational efforts of Managers. Nearly any
  action that management takes will affect
  secondary needs.
• Therefore, managerial planning should
  consider the effect of any proposed action
  on the secondary needs of employees.

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The seven key conclusions about Secondary needs.

• They are strongly conditioned by experience
• Vary in type and intensity among people
• Are subject to change across time within any
  individual
• Can not usually be isolated, but rather, work
  in combination and influence one another
• Are often hidden from conscious recognition
• Are vague feelings as opposed to specific
  physical needs
• Influence behavior
• The theories of Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer
  each build on the
• distinction between Primary and secondary needs.
  Also there are
• some similarities as well as differences among
  the three approaches.
• Despite the limitations of these theories, they
  help create an important
• basis for the more advanced Motivational Models.

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MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

• According to Maslow, human needs are not of
  equal strength, and they emerge in a definite
  sequence.
• As the primary needs become reasonable well
  satisfied, a person places more emphasis on the
  secondary needs.
• Maslows hierarchy of needs focuses attention on
  five levels. (Shown on the Table

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Model of Maslows hierarchy of Needs.
5. Self-actualization and Fulfillment needs
HIGHER ORDER NEEDS
4. Esteem and status needs
3. Belonging and Social needs.
2. Safety and Security needs.
LOWER ORDER NEEDS
1. Physiological needs.
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MOSLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

• Lower Order Needs (First two levels of Primary
  needs)
• First level needs involve Basic Survival needs
  and include Physiological needs for food, air,
  water and sleep.
• The second need level is Bodily safety (such as
  Freedom from a dangerous work environment) and
  Economic security (such as a no-layoff guarantee
  or a comfortable retirement plan).
• Higher Order needs
• The third level in the hierarchy concerns love,
  belonging, and social involvement at work
  (friendships and compatible associates).
• The fourth level include those for esteem and
  status, including one's feelings of self-worth
  and of competence. The feeling of competence ,
  which derives from the assurance of others,
  provides status.
• The Fifth level need is self-actualization, which
  means becoming all that one is capable of
  becoming, using ones skills to the fullest, and
  stretching talent to the maximum.

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Interpreting MOSLOWs Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslows Need-hierarchy model essentially says
  that people have needs
• they wish to satisfy and that gratified needs are
  not as strong motivating as
• unmet needs.
• A fully satisfied need will not be a strong
  motivator.
• Employees are more enthusiastically motivated by
  what they are currently seeking then by receiving
  more of what they already have.
• Some useful ideas for helping Managers to think
  about motivating their employees.
• - Identify and accept
  employees needs
• - Recognize that needs may
  differ among employees
• - Offer satisfaction for
  the particular needs currently unmet.
• - Realize that giving more
  of the same reward (especially one
  which satisfies lower order needs) may have a
  diminishing impact on
  motivation.

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Interpreting MOSLOWs Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow Model has many limitations, and it has
  been sharply criticized.
• - From a philosophical framework , it has
  been difficult to study and has not been
  fully verified.
• From a practical perspective , it is not easy to
  provide opportunity for self-actualization to all
  employees.
• Research has not supported that presence of all
  five need levels as unique nor has the five-step
  progression from lowest to highest need levels
  been established.
• There is some evidence that unless the two
  lower-order needs (i.e Physiological
• and Security needs) are basically satisfied,
  employees will not be greatly
• concerned with higher order needs.

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HERZBERS TWO-FACTOR MODEL

• Herzberg developed the Motivation model by asking
  his subject to describe
• when they felt especially good about their jobs
  and a time when they felt especially bad about
  their jobs.
• Herzberg found that employees named different
  types of conditions that produced good and bad
  feelings.
• That is if a feeling of achievement led to a good
  feeling, the lack of achievement was rarely given
  as cause for bad feelings. Instead some other
  factor, such as company policy, was given was
  given as a bad feelings.

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Hertzberg's two-factor model
Work itself Achievement Possibility of
growth Responsibility Advancement Recognition
Motivational Factors
Maintenance Factors
Status Relations with supervisors Peer
relations Relations with subordinates Quality of
supervision Company policy And
administration Job security Working
conditions Pay
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HERZBERS TWO-FACTOR MODEL

• MOTIVATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE FACTORS
• Herzberg concluded that two separated sets of
  motivation factors influenced
• Motivation. Prior to Hertzberg people assumed
  that motivation and lack of
• motivation were merely opposites of one factor on
  a continuum.
• Herzberg stated that certain job factors, such as
  Job security and Working Conditions ,
• dissatisfy employees primarily when the
  conditions are absent.
• However, the presence of the two factors
  generally brings employees only
• to a neutral state, since these factors are
  not strongly motivation.
• These potent dissatisfiers are called Hygine
  Factors
• Other Job conditions known as Motivational
  Factors Motivators and Satisfiers operate
• primarily to build motivation and their
  absence rarely is strongly dissatisfying.
• The idea of separating Motivational and
  Maintenance factors helped Managers solve their
• questions about their Custodial policies and
  wide array of fringe benefits. According to
• Herzberg, the Fringe benefits and personal
  policies were primarily Maintenance Factors not

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HERZBERS TWO-FACTOR MODEL

• JOB CONTENT AND CONTEXT
• Motivational Factors such as Achievement and
  Responsibility are related, for
• the most part, directly to the Job itself, the
  Employees performance , and
• the personal recognition and growth that
  employees experience.
• Motivators are Job-centered they relate to Job
  Content.
• On the other hand Maintenance factors are mainly
  related to Job Context
• because they are more related to the environment
  surrounding the job.
• Thee difference between the Job Content and the
  Job Context shows that
• employees are motivated primarily by what they do
  for themselves.
• When they take responsibility or gain recognition
  through their own behavior,
• they are strongly motivated.

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HERZBERS TWO-FACTOR MODEL

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS. The
difference between Job Content and Job Context is
similar to the difference between the Intrinsic
and Extrinsic Motivators in psychology. Intrinsic
Motivators are internal rewards that a person
feels when pperforming a job, so there is a
direct and often immediate connection between
work and rewards. An employee in this situation
is self motivated . Extrinsic Motivators are
external rewards that occur apart from the nature
of work, providing no direct satisfaction at the
time the work is performed. E.g. Retirement
plans, health insurance and vacations. Although
employees value these items, they are not
effective motivators.
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Interpreting HERZBERGS Model

• Herzbers Model provides a useful distinction
  between Maintenance Factors,
• which are necessary but not sufficient, and
  Motivational factors, which have
• the potential for improving employees effort.
• Herzbers Model broadens Managers perspectives
  by showing the potential
• powerful role of Intrinsic rewards that evolve
  from the work itself. This
• conclusion ties in with a number of other
  important Behavioral developments,
• such as Job Enrichment, Empowerment,
  Self-leadership, and Quality of work
• life.
• Managers should be aware that they cannot neglect
  a wide range of factors
• that create at least a natural work environment.
  In addition, unless Hygiene
• factors are reasonable addresses, their absence
  will serve as significant
• distractions to workers.

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Interpreting HERZBERGS Model

• Herzbers Model has also been widely criticized
  for
• - Universally not applicable, because it was
  based on and applies best to managerial,
  professional, and upper-level white-collar
  employees.
• - Model appears to reduce the motivational
  importance of pay, status, and
• relations with others, since these are
  Maintenance factors.
• - The Model also seems to be method-bound,
  meaning that only Herzbers approach
  produces the two-factor model. There may be an
  appearance of two factors but in reality
  there is one factor.

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ALDERFERS E-R-G MODEL

• Alderfers proposed a Modified Need Hierarchy
  model (The E-R-G Model)
• which was built upon earlier Need Models
  (primarily Maslows) and seeking
• to overcome some of their weaknesses.
• The E-R-G Model has just three levels of needs.

Growth needs
Relatedness need
Existence needs
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ALDERFERS E-R-G MODEL

• Alderfers Model He suggested that Employees are
  initially interested in
• satisfying their Existence Needs, which combine
  Physiological and Security
• factors. Pay, Physical working conditions, Job
  security, and Fringe benefits
• can all address these needs.
• Relatedness Needs are at the next level, and
  these involve being
• understood and accepted by people above, below,
  and around the employee
• at work and away from it.
• Growth needs are in the third category these
  involve the desire for both
• Self-esteem and Self-actualization.
• In addition to condensing Maslows five Need
  levels into three thee, the
• Model differs from Maslows model in other ways.
• (For example the E-R-G Model does not assume as
  rigorous a progression from
• level to level. Instead, it accepts the
  likelihood that all Three levels might be active.
• It also suggest that a person frustrated at
  either of the two Higher levels may return to
• concentrate on a Lower level and then progress
  again.

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BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

• The three Models of Motivation that have been
  discussed up to this point
• are known as Content Theories Of Motivation,
  since they focus on the
• Content (Nature) of items that may motivate a
  person.
• The major difficulty with Content Models is that
  the Needs people have
• are not subject to observation by Managers or to
  precise measurement
• for monitoring purposes.
• As a result, there has been considerable interest
  in motivational models
• that rely more heavily on intended results,
  careful measurement, and
• systematic application of incentives.
• Organizational Behavior Modification, (OB) Mod,
  is the application in
• organizations of the principles of behavior
  modification.
• OB Mod and several other Models are Process
  Theories of Motivation
• Since they provide perspectives on the dynamics
  by which employees can
• Be motivated.

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LAW OF EFFECT

• OB Mod relies heavily on the Law Of Effect, which
  states that a person tends to repeat behavior
  that is accompanied by favorable consequences
  (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior
  that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences.
• Two conditions are required for successful
  application of OB Mod
• - The Manager must be able to identify some
  powerful consequences (as perceived by the
  employees)
• - Manager must be able to administer them in
  such a way that the employee will see the
  connection between the behavior to be
  affected and the consequences
• The Law Of Effect comes from Learning Theory,
  which suggest that we
• learn best under pleasant surroundings.
• The Advantage of OB Mod is that it places a
  greater degree of control,
• and responsibility, in the hand of the manager.
• OB Mod places greater emphasis on the use of
  Rewards and Alternative
• Consequences to sustain Behaviors

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ALTERNATIVE CONSEQUENCES

• OB Mod places greater emphasis on the use of
  Rewards and Alternative
• Before using OB Mod, however, managers must
  decide whether they wish to
• increase the probability of a person continued
  behavior or to decrease it.
• Once Managers decide on their objectives , they
  have two further choices to
• make which determine the type of consequence to
  be applied
• - First, should they use Positive or
  negative consequence?
• - Second , should they apply it or withhold
  it?
• The answers to those questions results in four
  unique alternatives as shown in the
• diagram.
• Positive Reinforcement provides a favorable
  consequence that encourages repetition of a
  behavior.
• Shaping is a systematic and progressive
  application of positive reinforcement.
• Negative Reinforcement occurs when behavior is
  accompanied by removal of an unfavorable
  consequence.
• Punishment is the administration of an
  unfavorable consequence that discourages a
  certain behavior.

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OB Mod uses four alternative consequences
punishment
Positive reinforcement
Application
Manager's use
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
Withdrawal
Negative
Positive
NATURE OF CONSEQUENCE
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Schedules of Reinforcement

• The frequency of the behavior creates a
  baseline, or standard, against
• which improvements can be compared. Then the
  manager can select a
• Reinforcement Schedule.
• Reinforcement may be either Continuous or
  Partial.
• - Continuous Reinforcement occurs when a
  reinforcer accompanies each correct
  behavior by an employee. This encourages quick
  learning (e.g. of Continuous Reinforcement is
  payment of employees for each acceptable item
  that they produce.
• Partial Reinforcement occurs when only some of
  the correct behaviors are
• reinforced. Learning is slower with this
  reinforcement.

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Interpreting Behavior Modification

• The major benefit of Behavior Modification is
  that it makes the Managers
• become conscious motivators. It encourages
  Managers to analyze
• behavior, explore why it occurs and how often ,
  and identify specific
• consequences that will help change it when these
  consequences are
• applied systematically.
• The General Guidelines for Applying Behavior
  Modification
• Identify the exact behavior to be modified.
• Make sure the expected behavior is within the
  employee's capabilities.
• Determine not only the rewards that employees
  value but also the magnitude that would effect
  their behavior.
• Clarify the connection between desired behavior
  and rewards.
• Use positive reinforcement whenever possible.
• Use punishment only in unusual circumstances and
  for specific behaviors.
• Ignore minor undesirable behavior to allow its
  extinction.
• Use shaping procedures to develop correct complex
  behavior.
• Minimize the time between the correct response
  and reinforcement.
• Provide reinforcement frequently and on some
  chosen schedule.

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Interpreting Behavior Modification

• Behavior Modification has been criticized on
  several grounds including its
• Philosophy , methods, and practicality.
• Because of the strong power of desired
  consequences, Behavior
• Modification may effectively force
  people to change their behavior.
• - Some critics also fear Behavior
  Modification gives too much power to the
  managers, and they raise the question of Who
  will control the Controllers?
• - Some other critics say that this model
  insults people's intelligence.
• - This Model has limited applicability to
  complex jobs (e.g. it is difficult to
  identify specific behaviors in the job of
  Corporate Lawyers, Software Developers or
  CEO job behaviors and reinforce them.

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GOAL SETTINGS

• Goal are target and objectives for future
  performance. They help focus employees attention
  on items of greater importance to the
  organization, encourage better planning for
  allocating of critical resources, and stimulate
  the preparation of Action Plans for Goal
  attainment.
• Goals setting are useful After the desired
  Behavior as Managers compare employee results
  with their aims and explore reasons for any
  differences.
• Meeting Goals also help satisfy a persons
  achievement drive, contributes to feelings
• Goal Setting works as a Motivational Process
  because its creates a discrepancy between current
  and expected performance.
• A major factor in the success of Goal Setting is
  self-efficacy.
• Employees with high self-efficiency tend
  to set higher personal goals under the
• belief that they are attainable

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Elements of Goal Setting

• Goal Acceptance Effective Goals need to be
  understood and accepted
• Specificity- Goals need to be specific and
  measurable as possible so
  that employees will know when a goal is reached.
• Challenge Most employees work harder when they
  have difficult goals to
  accomplish rather than easy ones. Hard Goals
  however be achievable.
• Performance monitoring and feedback- Provides at
  least subtle cues to employees that their tasks
  are important, their effort is needed, and their
  contributions are valued.
• Simple monitoring may not be enough since
  many employees want to know how well the are
  performing.
• Performance feedbacks tend to encourage
  better Job Performance, and Self-generated
  feedback is an especially powerful motivational
  tool.

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THE EXPECTANCY MODEL

• A widely accepted approach to Motivation is the
  Expectancy model also
• known as Expectancy Theory. This Model
  considers the motivation as
• the product of three factors
• Motivation Valence x
  Expectancy x Instrumentality
• Valance - Refers to the strength of a persons
  preference for receiving a reward. It is an
  expression of the amount of one's desire to reach
  a goal. Valance can be positive or negative
  preferences
• Expectancy - is the strength of belief that one's
  work-related effort will result in
• completion of a task. Expectancies are
  stated as probability of connection between
  Effort and Performance.
• One contributing factor to
  Effort-Performance Expectancies is the
  Self-efficacy. High self-efficacy creates a high
  Expectancy assessment. In contrast some employees
  suffer from Imposter Phenomenon. Imposters
  believe that they are not really as capable as
  they appear to be and, consequently fear that
  their incompetence will be revealed to others.
• Instrumentality represents the employees belief
  that reward will be received once the task is
  accomplished. This is based on subjective
  judgment about probability that organization that
  organization values the employees performance
  and will administrate reward on a contingent
  basis. (Perfotmance ---? Reward Probability)

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INTERPRETING THE EXPECTANCY MODEL

• ADVANTAGES
• - The Expectancy Model helps the Managers
  think about the mental processes through which
  motivation occurs. Expectancy Model forces
  managers to think individuals whose beliefs,
  perceptions, and probability estimates powerfully
  influence their behaviors. The Model reflects
• Theory Y Assumptions about people as capable
  individuals and values human dignity.
• Encourages Managers to design a motivational
  climate that will stimulate appropriate employee
  behavior.
• LIMITATIONS
• - It needs further testing to build a broad base
  of research evident for support
• Reliable measurers of Valence, Expectancy, and
  Instrumentality need to be developed.
• The Model need to be made more complete while
  still remaining practical enough for managers to
  use.

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INTERPRETING THE EXPECTANCY MODEL

• Reliable measurers of valence, expectancy, and
  instrumentality need to be
• developed.
• There is a special need to develop measurers that
  managers can use in
• actual work settings. When possible mangers,
  need to learn both what
• employees perceive and why they hold those
  valance, expectancy and
• instrumentality beliefs.
• This model also need to be made more complete
  while still remaining
• practical enough for managers to use.

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THE EQUITY MODEL

• The Equity theory states that employees tend to
  judge fairness by comparing
• the outcomes they receive with their relevant
  inputs and also by comparing
• this ratio (not always the absolute level of
  rewards) with the ratios of other
• people as this formula shows
• One's own outcomes ? Others outcomes
• One's own inputs Other
  inputs
• Inputs includes all elements employees believe
  they bring or contribution to the job
• (i.e. education, seniority, prior work
  experiences, loyalty and commitment, time and
• effort, creativity, and job, performance.
• Outcomes include direct pay, bonuses, fringe
  benefits, job security, social rewards,
• and psychological rewards.

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THE EQUITY MODEL

• Employees analyze the fairness of their own
  outcome/input Contract and
• then compare their contract with contracts of
  other workers in similar jobs
• and even with those outside of their job.
• Fairness of Rewards (Equality) may even be judged
  in comparison with
• relatively arbitrary criteria like age.
• The Key Factors in Equity
  Assessment
• Ones Input
  Ones Output
• Job effort
  Actual pay and Benefits
  Education
  Social Rewards
• Seniority
  Psychological Rewards
• Performance
• Job difficulties
• Other inputs

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THE EQUITY MODEL

• If employees perceive Equity, they will continue
  to contribute at about the same level.
• Otherwise under inequity they will experience
  tension that will create the motivation
• to reduce the inequity.
• If employee feels over-rewarded Equity theory
  predicts that they will feel an
• imbalance in their relationship with their
  employees and seek to restore that balance
• be either working harder or try to convince the
  other employees to ask for more
• rewards etc
• Workers who feel they have been under-rewarded
  seek to reduce their feelings of
• inequity through the same types of strategies ,
  but some of their specific actions are
• now reversed. Such as Lower productivity,
  bargain for more , possible qui the job
• etc..

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INTERPRETYING THE EQUITY MODEL

• An understanding of Equity should remind Managers
  that employees work within several
• Social Systems. Employees may select a number of
  reference groups both inside and
• outside the organization for comparison.
• Employees are also inclined to shift the basis
  for comparisons to the standard that is
• Most favorable to them. Such as Educated
  employees often inflate the value of their
• education, while employees with longer service
  emphasize seniority as the dominant
• criterion.
• Many employees have strong egos and high opinions
  of themselves. Consequently all
• these factors make the task of predicting when
  inequality will occur somewhat complex.
• Equity Theory has generated extensive research,
  with many of the results being
• supportive.
• In particular, under-reward seems to produce
  motivational tension with negative consequences
• less consistent results are found for over-reward
  condition.
• Perception plays a key role in this model ,
  suggesting how valuable it is for a Manager to
  gather

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INTERPRETYING MOTIVATIONAL MODEL

• Several different Models have been studied . All
  of these Models have strength and
• weaknesses, advocates and critics.
• No Model is perfect, but all of them add
  something to our understanding of Motivational
• Process.
• Therefore, the Motivational Model used must be
  adapted to the situation as well as
• blended with other Motivational models.
• Managers are encouraged to combine the
  perspectives of several Motivational Models to
• create a complete Motivational environment for
  their employees..