Chapter 1

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Geosystems
FIFTH EDITION
AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Robert W. Christopherson
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Chapter 1 Essentials of Geography

• Geosystems 5e
• An Introduction to Physical Geography

Robert W. Christopherson Charlie Thomsen
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Key Learning Concepts

• After reading the chapter you should be able
  to
• Define geography and physical geography in
  particular.
• Describe systems analysis, open and closed
  systems, feedback information, and system
  operations, and relate these concepts to Earth
  systems.
• Explain Earths reference grid latitude and
  longitude, and latitudinal geographic zones and
  time.
• Define cartography and mapping basics map scale
  and map projections.
• Describe remote sensing and explain geographic
  information system (GIS) methodology as a tool
  used in methodology as a tool used in geographic
  analysis.

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The Science of Geography

• Geography from geo Earth and graphein to
  write 
• Geography is
• A method, not a body of knowledge
• Holistic (relating to or concerned with wholes or
  with complete systems rather than with the
  analysis of, treatment of, or dissection into
  parts).
• Eclectic (composed of elements drawn from various
  sources).
• Geographers use spatial analysis (the examination
  of spatial interactions, patterns, and variations
  over area/or space. Geography is a spatial
  science spatial analysis its essential
  approach).
• Spatial- The nature or character of physical
  space, as in an area occupying or operating
  within space.

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What is the Science of Geography?

• Geography is the science that studies the
  interdependence of geographic areas, places, and
  locations natural systems processes and
  societal and cultural activities over Earth's
  surface. Physical geography involves the spatial
  analysis of Earth's physical environment.
  Various words denote the geographic context of
  spatial analysis space, territory, zone,
  pattern, distribution, place, location, region,
  sphere, province, and distance. Spatial patterns
  of Earth's weather, climate, winds and ocean
  currents, topography, and terrestrial biomes are
  examples of geographic topics.

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Example of what physical geographers do

• Question How might a physical geographer
  analyze water pollution in the Great Lakes?
• Answer Geographers for example can describe the
  lake elevations, flows, volumes and annual mixing
  patterns as temperatures change seasonally. They
  can locate population centers and point sources
  of pollution using population concentrations
  estimate non-point sources of pollution. They can
  map published data of water chemical analyses.
  They can use a Geographic Information System
  (GIS) model develop a composite overlay of all
  the above elements.

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Geographic themes

• The Association of American Geographers (AAG) and
  the National Council for Geographic Education
  (NCGE), set forth five key themes for modern
  geographic education location, place,
  human-Earth relationships, movement, and region.

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The five geographic themes

1. Location Either absolute or relative location.
   Location answers the question where? or the
   specific planetary address of a location.
2. Region Portion of the Earths surface with
   uniform characteristics how they form and
   change how they relate to other regions.
3. Human-Earth Relationship Humans and the
   environment resource exploitation, hazard
   perception, and environmental modification- the
   oldest theme of geographic inquiry.
4. Place The characteristics that make each place
   unique (realistic or spiritual).
5. Movement Communication, movement, circulation,
   and diffusion across Earths surface. Global
   interdependence links all regions and places-
   both physical and human systems.

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Geography is also

• The science that studies the relationships among
• natural systems,
• geographic areas,
• society,
• cultural activities,
• and the interdependence of all of these over
  space.

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Content of Geography

• Geography derives subject matter from many
  different sciences. The focus of this class is
  physical geography but geographers also integrate
  some human and cultural components. Synthesis of
  Earth topics and human topics is suggested by
  movement toward the middle of the continuum- a
  holistic, or balanced view. (See Figure 1.2-
  next slide).

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Figure 1.2
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Scientific Method

• Like all other sciences, geographers use the
  scientific method approach that uses applied
  common sense in an organized and objective
  manner based on observation, reasoning,
  hypothesis, predictions, and finally the
  development of a theory.
• Observation What data are needed? What do we
  want to know? What questions need answering?
• Reasoning Explanation and interpretation.
  Building useful models of real systems-
  conceptual, numerical.
• Hypothesis General statement summarize data,
  observations, and model simulations.
• Predictions Experiments conducted more data
  gathered through observation and measurement
  hypothesis refined.
• Theory Real world understood the knowledge of
  how things happen and behave as part of broad,
  general principles.

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• Figure 1 Page 7 Geographers use the scientific
  method- from perceptions, to observations,
  reasoning, hypothesis, predictions, and possibly
  to general theory and natural laws.

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Earth Systems Concepts

• Systems Theory Geographers use systems
  methodology as an analytic tool. A system is any
  ordered, interrelated set of things and their
  attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter,
  as distinct from the surrounding environment
  outside the system.   
• Open systems A system with inputs and outputs
  crossing back and forth between the system and
  the surrounding environment. Earth is an open
  system in terms of energy-why? Other examples are
  the automobile and a leaf (see next 2 slides).
• Closed systems A system that is shut off from
  the surrounding environment so that it is
  entirely self-contained in terms of energy and
  materials Earth is a closed system in terms of
  physical matter and resources.

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More systems

• System feedback As a system operates, it
  generates outputs that influence its own
  operations. These outputs function as
  information that is returned to various points
  in the system via pathways called feedback
  loops. Feedback loops can guide further system
  operations. Example In plant photosynthesis
  any increase or decrease in daylight or water
  can cause a decrease in growth of a plant.
• System equilibrium A system that maintains
  structure and equilibrium over time. The rates
  of inputs and outputs in the system are equal and
  the amounts of energy and matter are constant.
  Examples the rotations of planets. Gradual
  change of the system is defined as Dynamic
  equilibrium. Examples Long term climatic
  changes, increasing temperatures of the
  atmosphere and oceans.

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Figure 1.3
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Open system Photosynthesis in plants create
consumption of light, CO2, nutrients, and H2O and
produces oxygen and sugars while at night much of
the reverse takes place.
Figure 1.4
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Earths Four Spheres

• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Lithosphere
• Biosphere

Figure 21.2
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Earths Four Spheres- Plan for the Course.

• Atmosphere (Chap. 2-6). The atmosphere is a
  thin veil of gases surrounding the Earth, which
  form a protective boundary between outer space
  and the biosphere generally considered to extend
  about 480 km from the surface.
• Hydrosphere (Chap. 7-10) An abiotic (non
  biological) open system that includes all of the
  Earths water.
• Lithosphere (Chap. 11-17). Earths crust and a
  portion of the upper mantle directly below the
  crust form the lithosphere.
• Biosphere (Chap. 18-20). The intricate,
  interconnected web that links all organisms with
  their physical environment.

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Earths Dimensions, Location, and Time
Calculations  

• Dimensions
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Great circles, Small Circles
• Prime Meridian and standard time

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(Figure 1.9) Earths dimensions Earth
circumference (a) and diameter (b)- equatorial
and polar - are shown. The dashed line is a
perfect circle for reference to Earths geoid
(the surface within or around the earth that is
everywhere normal to the direction of gravity and
coincides with mean sea level in the oceans).
Figure 1.9
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Latitude

• On a map or globe, lines denoting angles of
  latitude run east and west, parallel to Earth's
  equator. Latitude is an angular distance north
  or south of the equator measured from a point at
  the center of Earth. A line connecting all
  points along the same latitudinal angle is called
  a parallel. (See next slide.)

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Latitude
Figure 1.11
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Longitude

• On a map or globe, lines designating angles of
  longitude run north and south at right angles
  (90) to the equator and all parallels. Longitude
  is an angular distance east or west of a surface
  location measured from a point at the center of
  Earth. A line connecting all points along the
  same longitude is called a meridian. (See next
  slide.)

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Longitude
Figure 1.14
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Great Circles and Small Circles

• A great circle is any circle of Earth's
  circumference whose center coincides with the
  center of Earth. Every meridian is one-half of a
  great circle that crosses each parallel at right
  angles and passes through the poles. An infinite
  number of great circles can be drawn on Earth,
  but only one parallel is a great circlethe
  equatorial parallel. All the rest of the
  parallels diminish in length toward the poles,
  and, along with other circles that do not share
  Earth's center, constitute small circles (See
  next slide).

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Great Circles and Small Circles
Figure 1.15
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Prime Meridian and Standard Time

• Prime Meridian the meridian of 0 degrees
  longitude which runs through the original site of
  the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, and
  from which other longitudes are measured east or
  west. Greenwich, England was selected by
  international agreement in an 1884 treaty.
  Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) became the world
  standard time. (See next slide).
• International Date Line An important corollary
  of the prime meridian is the 180 degrees meridian
  on the opposite side of the planet. The meridian
  is called the International Date Line (IDL) and
  marks the place where each day officially begins
  (at 1201 A.M.). From this line the new day
  sweeps westward. The westward movement is
  created by the Earth turning eastward on its
  axis. The IDL deviates from the 180 degrees
  meridian, this deviation is due to local
  administrative and political preferences. (See
  next slide).

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Figure 1.17 Prime Meridian and Standard Time  
Figure 1.17
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What does timekeeping have to do with longitude?
How is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
determined on Earth?

• Earth revolves 360 every 24 hours, or 15 per
  hour, and a time zone of one hour is established
  for each 15 of longitude. Thus, a world
  standard was established, and time was set with
  the prime meridian at Greenwich, England. Each
  time zone theoretically covers 7.5 on either
  side of a controlling meridian and represents one
  hour. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is called
  Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and although
  the prime meridian is still at Greenwich, UTC is
  based on average time calculations kept in Paris
  and broadcast worldwide. UTC is measured today
  by the very regular vibrations of cesium atoms in
  6 primary standard clocksthe NIST-F1 being the
  newest placed in operation by the United States
  in 2000.

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Maps, Scales, and Projections  

• Map a generalized view of an area, as seen from
  above and reduced in size
• Scale ratio of map units to ground units
• Projection process of transforming spherical
  Earth to flat map

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Maps

• A picture -- or a map -- is worth a thousand
  words! A map is a simplified view of the earth's
  surface that shows where places and things are
  located and helps us communicate that information
  efficiently. In this section, you will learn more
  about maps and how to read them.

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Reading Maps

• Common Elements
• Maps have certain common elements that help us
  read them effectively.

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• On a map, the title indicates the geographic area
  depicted on the map.

                                                              
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• On a thematic map, the title also indicates the
  data being presented on the map.

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Legend

• The legend is the key to understanding the map
  and, together with the title, is the first place
  you should look when reading a map. The map
  legend explains the meaning of symbols used on
  the map.

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Scale

• Scale is a statement of how distance on the map
  relates to distance on the ground.
• Two common expressions of scale are
• Representative fraction
• Graphic Bar (or bar scale)

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Representative fraction  

• Example of Representative fraction
• 163,360
• Meaning 1 unit of distance on the map equals
  63,360 of the same units on the ground. The ratio
  is universal 1cm on the map 63,360 cm on the
  ground or 1 inch on the map 63,360 inches on
  the ground.

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Graphic Bar (or bar scale)

• Example Use the graphic scale printed on the map
  to measure distances on the map in terms of
  ground distances.

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Small scale or large scale?

• Small scale less detail (more land coverage),
  for example 11,000,000.
• Large scale more detail (less land coverage),
  for example 110,000.
• Sometimes, small scale maps contain "insets" at a
  larger scale to show detail in a congested area
  of the small scale map. (See next slide).

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Example
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• DIRECTION Most maps include a "north arrow (see
  below) to reference direction on the map. Maps
  produced by Statistics Canada usually show "true
  north", which is the direction to the North Pole
  of the earth, rather than magnetic north or grid
  north. The north arrow on a map is usually
  located in or near the map legend. If a north
  arrow does not appear on the map, north is
  assumed to be the top of the map
•   
• There are other types of "north" that can be
  shown on maps. Most topographic maps will show
  the difference between true, magnetic and grid
  north. Magnetic north is the north magnetic pole.
  It is currently located in Nunavut at 78oN 105oW.
  The north arrow of a magnetic compass points
  toward the north magnetic pole. (Note the
  difference between true north and magnetic north
  is call ed magnetic declination.)
• Grid north is an artificial north that is used on
  map which have a rectangular grid. The vertical
  lines do not converge as one proceeds northward.
  These map are most commonly used for navigation.

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Features

• Thematic maps use symbols to display a specific
  data theme such as population change,
  distribution of lone-parent families, average
  farm income, etc. A minimum amount of reference
  information, such as boundaries and major water
  features, help map readers orient themselves to
  the geographic area covered by the map.

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Example
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Features (continued)

• Reference maps use symbols to show the location
  of physical features, such as roads, railroads,
  rivers, lakes, etc., and non-visible features
  such as boundaries, names and codes of geographic
  areas (See next slide)..

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Example
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Classes of Map Projections

• A globe is the only true representation of
  distance, direction, area, shape, and proximity.
  A flat map distorts those properties. Therefore,
  in preparing a flat map, the cartographer must
  decide which characteristics to preserve, which
  to distort, and how much distortion is
  acceptable. Four general classes and
  perspectives of map projections are used by
  cartographers cylindrical, planar, conic, and
  oval. (See next slide).

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Classes of Map Projections
Figure 1.22
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Modern Earth Measurements Remote SensingWhat is
remote sensing? What are you viewing when you
observe a weather image on TV?

• Remote Sensing Our eyes and cameras are familiar
  means of obtaining remote-sensing information
  about a distant subject without having physical
  contact. Remote sensors on satellites and other
  craft sense a broader range of wavelengths than
  can our eyes. They can be designed to see
  wavelengths shorter than visible light
  (ultraviolet) and wavelengths longer than visible
  light (infrared and microwave radar).
• Active remote sensing Active systems direct a
  beam of energy at a surface and analyze the
  energy that is reflected back. An example is
  radar (radio detection and ranging).
• Passive remote sensing Passive remote-sensing
  systems record energy radiated from a surface,
  particularly visible light (like our eyes) and
  infrared.

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Active and Passive Remote Sensing
Passive sensing visible light
Active sensing radar
Figure 1.25
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Remote Sensing
Figure 1.26
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 

• GIS systems combine spatial and attribute data 
• Maps can contain multiple data layers
• Physical features
• Cultural features
• Layers can be added to create composite overlay

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Geography and Technology

• Geography affects us in many ways
• Our natural environment
• Our human environment
• Geography is a Hi-Tech discipline
• Earth Observation
• Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

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Earth Observation
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Geographic Information Systems

• We can describe any element of our world in two
  ways

Describing Our World
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GIS - Links Data Sets

• GIS software links the location data and the
  attribute data

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GIS - Analysis

• GIS software can answer questions about our world

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GIS - Layers

• GIS contains many layers of information

These are just a few of the kinds of layers a GIS
can contain
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GIS - Analysis

• GIS can analyze data in many ways

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GIS Technology

• GIS borrows from other software technology

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Summary - What is GIS?

• GIS is about using data to describe our world in
  two ways
• Location Data - Where is it?
• Attribute Data - What is it?
• GIS software maintains a link between layers of
  location and attribute data
• With the Link, we can ask questions about our
  world

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Real World Applications

• Environmental
• Park Management
• Agriculture
• Public Utilities
• Health Care
• Emergency 911
• Real Estate
• Marketing

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Park Management

• Will the new building spoil the Park Scenery?

Park planners use Geotechnology to determine if a
new Visitor Centre can be seen from the peak.
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Agriculture

• How can I improve food production?

Geotechnology is used in making crop management
decisions to maximize yields and minimize
fertilizer input.
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Public Utilities

• Is it safe to dig here?

A proposed excavation, identified by address, is
compared to pipelines in the area using
Geotechnology.
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Health Care

• What Communities are at risk from Disease?

Geotechnology identifies communities at risk of
River Blindness and helps determine the impact of
treatment.
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Emergency 911

• What is the fastest route to the Hospital?

Geotechnology can choose the fastest route to a
hospital. The GIS can take into account traffic
and other impediments.
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Real Estate

• Where is my Dream Home?

With Geotechnology, an agent can show a map of a
neighborhood and a picture or video of the actual
properties.
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Marketing

• How can I optimize my Marketing Campaign?

Geotechnology can query a database and identify
only those areas with the highest household
income within a specified distance of a store.
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End of Chapter 1

• Geosystems 5e
• An Introduction to Physical Geography

Robert W. Christopherson Charlie Thomsen