Leeds Business School Postgraduate Research Methods Deciding

1
Leeds Business SchoolPostgraduate
Research Methods
Deciding on the Research Philosophy
www.colinwatsonleeds.co.uk These slides are
available on my website
2
Phase 2 Seminar 1Pre-reading (All Routes)

• Required (Directed)
• Saunders (2003 Chapter 4 Case 4)
• Hair et al, ch.2, 6.
• Walliman ch.5

3
Phase 2 Seminar 1Teaching and Learning Outcomes

• At the end of this session you will understand
• Differing Research Philosophies and Perspectives
• Differing Approaches to Research
• Differing Research Strategies
• The importance of Time
• Ways of measuring and evaluating the credibility
  of research
• Ways of measuring and evaluating the value of
  research

4
Previouslywe looked at turning Research ideas
into Research Projects
Move from a Research idea
To a General Focus Research Question
To a series of Research Questions or Hypotheses
To Specific Research Objectives
5
And we considered..The literature review process
Research questions and objectives Define
parameters Generate and refine key words Conduct
search Obtain literature Evaluate Record Start
drafting review .after several
iterations Written critical review of the
literature..
Feedback loop
6
Wish to research
The research Process Progressive
Problem Solving
Formulate and clarify your Research topic
Critically review the literature
Choose your research approach and strategy
Negotiate access and address ethical issues
Plan your data collection and collect the data
using one or more of
Sampling
Secondary data
Observation
Semi-structured and in-depth interviews
Questionnaires
Analyse your data using one or both of
Quantitative methods
Qualitative methods
Write your project report
Submit your report
7
4.1 Differing approaches to research
Research philosophy
Research approaches
Research strategies
Data collection methods
Time horizons
8
Research Philosophy

Research philosophy
9
Research philosophy or Epistemology
Broadly speaking the are two views over the
nature of knowledge and how it is developed
(Epistemology). These are Positivism (scientific
method) and Interpretivism. Note They are often
in warring camps. Some see these oppositions as
false and detrimental to research. Keep
flexible!
10
Positivism
Research philosophy

Auguste Comte, 1798-1857
11
Positivism (a.k.a Logical Positivism and
Objectivism)
Research philosophy

• Positivists attempt to mirror the methods of the
  natural
• and physical scientists.
• Through observing reality you can produce laws
  of the social
• world which can be generalised from one context
  to another
• e.g Laws of Supply and Demand in Positive
  Economics.

12
Positivism or Objectivism
Research philosophy

• Your role is to be an objective analyst,
  collecting data and
• interpreting it in a value free way.
• You are detached, neither affect nor are
  affected by the
• subject of your research.
• Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and
  replication
• (the ability to repeat research)

13
Interpretivism and Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl, 1859-1938
14
Interpretivism (e.g. Phenomenology) emphasises -
Research philosophy

• That the world is too complex to be reduced to a
  series of
• law-like generalisations.
• the uniqueness of people, and circumstances
• and the constant nature of change.
• details matter - in an attempt to dig into
  deeper
• layers of reality.
• subjective reality matters.

15
Interpretivism could be used to study -
Research philosophy

• Organisational culture layer by layer the
  visual symbols
• the mission statement, and the hidden world of
  taken
• for granted assumptions which influence
  thinking, feeling
• perceptions in the workplace.
• Warning!
• Finding the reality working behind the reality
  may be
• too challenging for some!

16
Objectivist (Positivism) v. Interpretivism?
Research philosophy

• EXERCISE
• Look at the handout and decide where you own
• research interest falls. Compare column 1
  against 2.
• Is it Objectivist (ie Positivist adopting the
  scientific method,
• or Interpretivist?

17
Objectivist (Positivism) v. Interpretivism?
Research philosophy
EXERCISE Think carefully about how your propose
project fits into the 2 Philosophical approaches.
In particular ask Is your problem about objects
or about people, or The relationship between the
two? Can it be analysed in terms of forces or
inner physical processes, or rather in terms of
meanings and subjective forces?
18
Objectivist (Positivism) v. Interpretivism?
Research philosophy
EXERCISE Think carefully about how your propose
project fits into the 2 Philosophical approaches.
In particular ask Are notions of causation an
important aspect, or are you seeking to find
explanations in order to reach an understanding
of a situation? Will knowledge be gained through
impartial observation and/or experimentation, or
will you have to immerse yourself in the
situation and make subjective or value-laden
observations?
19
The Positivist (Objectivist) and Phenomenological
(Intrepretivist) Paradigms
20
Research approaches
Research approaches
21
Choosing a Research Approach
A deductive approach? You develop a theory and
design a strategy to test hypotheses. A close
ally to the philosophy of positivism. A
scientific approach. An inductive approach?
You collect data and develop a theory as a
result of your data analysis A close ally to the
philosophy of phenomenology.
22
Research approaches
Steps in the logic of the hypothetico-deductive
method
1/ Deducing a hypothesis ( a testable
proposition between two or more events or
concepts) from the theory. (H1,..H2) 2/
Expressing the hypothesis in operational
terms (indicate exactly how the variables are to
be measured) Show how the variables relate. 3/
Test the operational hypothesis (e.g. experiment)
13
23
Research approaches
Steps in the logic of the hypothetico-deductive
method
4/ Examine the specific outcome of the inquiry.
a / Predicted outcome (from hypothesis)
supports the theory b / Contrary outcome (to
hypothesis) contradicts the theory, or
fails to support the theory, or may be
explained by poor research design.
13
24
Research approaches
Steps in the logic of the hypothetico-deductive
method
5/ If necessary, modifying the theory in the
light of its findings. Verify the revised theory
by going back to stage 1/ and repeat the cycle.
14
25
Deduction testing theory
X does occur - theory supported
If theory is true
X will occur
Test X
X does not occur - theory challenged
15
26
A hypothesis states that there is a relationship
between two concepts and specifies the direction
of that relationship.
Gross annual income
Age
16
27
Key terms explained
Research approaches
The elements in the boxes are called
concepts. The lines between the boxes are called
relationships. Theories are composed of concepts
linked by relationships.
28
Variables
Research approaches
A positive sign shows a positive relationship,
e.g. (hours of study rises, exam grades rise) A
negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g.
(Price of houses rises, demand falls)
19
29
Variables
Research approaches
A variable is a characteristic which has more
than one category or value. e.g. Age The
effect is called a dependent variable (Y) The
assumed cause is called an independent variable
(X) An intervening variable (Z) is the means by
which X affects Y..
30
variables
Research approaches
Education
job
income
X
Y
Z
31
A scattergram shows an association between age of
respondentand gross annual income(Job Survey
Data)

32
Examples of hypothesis in Business Research
Research approaches
Share prices are positively related to the amount
spent on advertising, the price of the product,
or service, and the number of sales
representatives. Emerging stock markets exhibit
long term over-reaction Patterns. Teenage
customers will use more wireless minutes per
month If we offer package plans with free
downloading of music.
33
Examples of hypothesis in Business Research
Research approaches
Organizational commitment is related to
supervision, Co-workers and satisfaction with the
work environment. Customer loyalty is positively
related to product quality, Pricing, customer
service, purchase convenience, and opening
hours. Try and develop one related to your
project
34
How to develop hypotheses
Research approaches
They are developed prior to data collection. They
often emerge from the literature review,
research questions and theory. You need to ask
What group will be examined with this
hypothesis? e.g. males v. females, or different
age groups, And What variables are being
tested?
35
How to develop hypotheses
Research approaches
Converting RQs into Hypotheses
36
Converting RQs into hypothesese
Exercise Using the handout provided, convert 3
RQs relevant to your own project into
Hypotheses. Research Question.. A
corresponding hypothesis..
37
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
You need controls to allow the testing of
hypotheses. These controls would allow you to
ensure that a change in Income was a function of
age rather than some other aspect e.g.
gender. Thus you need a structured methodology
to ensure reliability. Observer independence is
of the essence.
38
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
You need to be able to operationalise variables
i.e. to make them measurable and
quantifiable. e.g Professionalism product
quality or Job satisfaction cannot be measured
directly.
39
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches

• A hypothesis must be testable.
• Often they are formulated on an abstract
  conceptual level
• and cannot be tested directly.
• You need to operationalise them, top make them
  concrete.
• Often you will need to break down the main
  hypothesis
• into 2 or more sub-hypotheses.

40
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
There are steps to go from the most abstract
level to the most concrete CONCEPTS The
building blocks of the hypothesis Which are
usually abstract and cannot be measured
directly INDICATORS Phenomena which point to the
existence of the concepts VARIABLES The
components of the indicators which can be
measured VALUES The actual units or methods of
measurement Of the variables.
41
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
There can be more than one indicator or variable
or value CONCEPTS Poverty INDICATORS poor
living conditions VARIABLES provision of
sanitary facilities VALUES Numbers of people
per bathroom, WC You task could be to set up a
questionaire which attempts to measure poverty
by asking appropriate questions.
42
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
There can be more than one indicator or variable
or value CONCEPTS Affluence INDICATORS Rising
and high living conditions VARIABLES Service /
tertiary sector growth VALUES Numbers of second
homes, cars per household, private medicine,
Private education, chauffeurs! You task could
be to set up a questionnaire which attempts to
measure affluence by asking appropriate
questions.
43
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
Recently a leading Economist (Richard Layard) has
tried to Measure human happiness and see if it
correlates with economic growth CONCEPTS Human
happiness INDICATORS ???? VARIABLES
???? VALUES ??????? You task could be to set
up a questionnaire which attempts to measure
happiness by asking appropriate questions.
44
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
Now, apply this to your own research Main
topic.. CONCEPTS INDICATORS
VARIABLES .. VALUES Now set
up a questionnaire which attempts to measure your
key concepts by asking appropriate questions.
45
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
Bryman and Cramer Quantitative Data Analysis
with SPSS In their Job Survey Data, BC attempt
to measure Job Satisfaction via a scale
involving 4 qs. The same 4 q. approach is used
with Job Autonomy and Job Routine Job
Commitment has only one question! I would not
leave this firm even if another Employer could
offer me a little more money
46
Deduction testing theory
Research approaches
You need to be able to select a sample of
suitable size In order to be able to generalise
about the wider community. It would be dangerous
to make inferences about other firms from the Job
Survey Data in one organisation. NOTE the link
between Scientific Method, Deduction and the
Quantitative approach
47
Induction building theory
Research approaches

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626
What is the experience of working at a
particular firm? We could interview employees on
the shop-floor to get a feel for the issues and
then analyse the data, and eventually formulate
a theory about job satisfaction. With induction
theory follows data.
48
Induction building theory
Research approaches

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

• Human beings interpret their world they have
• consciousness.
• They are not unthinking research objects who
  respond
• like the coffee machine in the corridor to the
  stimulus
• of cash injections
• Humans devise alternative explanations to the
• orthodox view they have their own stories
  (narratives).

49
Induction building theory
Research approaches

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

• Context matters.
• A small sample may be appropriate.
• Qualitative methods acceptable.
• More likely to find out why X is happening
  rather than
• what is happening.

50
Knowing your approach

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

• has implications for your strategies
• What kind of evidence is acceptable/
  appropriate.
• How such evidence is collected.
• How the evidence is interpreted.

51
Knowing your approach

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

• You need to.
• Sort out which approaches are NOT appropriate
• and say why.
• Practical issues matter you may have limited
• access to certain types of data, or
• insufficient knowledge of the topic.
• This will constrain your options.

52
Combining approaches

It may be advantageous to combine methods. If
there is a wealth of material from which it is
easy to define a hypothesis the choice is
the deductive approach. If the field is new and
you need to generate data and reflect on the
themes, the choice is inductive.
53
Combining approaches the constraints

You need to plan a survey and learn software
to analyse quantitative data. A high response
rate To a qaire is not guaranteed. BUT the
computer crunches in seconds or less! Inductive
work can be labour intensive, too. It may take
time for themes and theories to emerge. No
guarantees that patterns will emerge.
54
Combining approaches the constraints

As always, time and risk are constraints
too. Also what about the audience for your
work Do their preferences differ from your
own? What will they accept? NOTE A hybrid
approach that mixes Qual and Quants may be
possible but you need to discuss this with
your Supervisor!
55
Research strategies (Designs in Bryman)
Research strategies
56
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

• FIRST, be clear about your research questions and
  objectives.
• A strategy is a general plan of how you will go
  about
• answering your research question(s).
• It will contain clear objectives derived from
  the question.
• You must -
• specify the data sources.
• Consider the constraints e.g access, time,
  location, money,
• ethical issues.

57
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

Be clear about your research question(s) and
objectives. You will need to provide valid
reasons for all your choices. The justification
must be based on your research questions and
objectives. Think carefully about every stage!
58
The different research strategies (Designs in
Bryman)

• experiment
• survey
• case study
• grounded theory
• ethnography
• action research
• cross-sectional and longitudinal
• exploratory, descriptive and explanatory
  studies
• Note They are not mutually exclusive