Chapter 2: Research Methods

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Dr. Mary Streit
• Suffolk Community College

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Goal of Research to find the truth! What is
  really going on??
• How can we conduct research to get at the truth?
• Adhere to the scientific method
• Make sure your study is falsifiable or subject to
  replication. Include operational definitions.
• Propose a theory that is parsimonious or not
  overly complicated. Keep it simple whenever
  possible.

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Two major categories or types of research
• Basic
• - laboratory setting
• - Theory building
• Applied
• - field or real-world setting
• - solve a problem

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Chapter 2 Research methods

• Two types of research methods
• Non-experimental.
• - hands-off no control
• - real-world setting
• 2. Experimental.
• - hands-on control
• - laboratory setting
• Which category seems most similar to applied
  research? Basic research?

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods.
• Naturalistic observation.
• - AKA observational research
• - meets first goal of psychology Description
• - answers the question What?
• - qualitative
• - operational definitions hypotheses emerge
• -Jane Goodal and Chimpanzees
• -Dian Fossey and Gorillas

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Limitations
• - lengthy and time-consuming
• - observer bias AKA experimenter bias. When
  the researcher is biased in his/her observations
  usually in the direction that supports his/her
  hypothesis.
• - observer effect / reactivity When people
  behave differently when they know they are being
  watched or observed.

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods contd
• 2. Case study.
• A detailed description of an individual with a
  rare or unusual disorder
• In-depth analysis
• Can be used to describe and explain behavior
• Limitations results can not be applied to the
  general population
• Memory problems
• Famous cases patient H.M., Phineas Gage, Genie
  the wild child
• For more information on Genies case see
  http//www.psychology.sbc.edu/cesarz.htm

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Phineas Gagefor more info http//www.deakin.edu.
au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/
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Patient H.M.

• For more information on H.M., see the link below
• http//thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/pdf_artic
  les/patient_hm.pdf

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods.
• Surveys.
• - questionnaires that allow psychologists to
  measure covert behaviors attitudes, opinions,
  values, beliefs, etc.
• - can be easily used to measure large groups of
  people
• - more quantitative
• - can be used to describe, explain, and even
  predict behavior

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Chapter 2 Research Methods
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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-experimental Research Methods.
• Surveys.
• - population everyone (the entire pizza pie)
• - sample not everyone or a subset of the
  population( a slice of the pie)
• You want your sample to be representative of the
  population. Why?
• So you can generalize your results to the
  population. (e.g. - You dont have to eat the
  entire pizza pie to see how it tastes. You can
  just eat one slice!)

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods continued
• 3. Survey limitations
• Sample bias when your sample is different from
  the population
• Example When you happen to eat the only slice in
  the entire pie that is pepperoni. This is
  problematic if you erroneously assume that the
  rest of the pie is also pepperoni.
• Sample results can NOT be generalized to the
  population
• 1934- Literary Digest. Al Landon vs. FDR famous
  case of sample bias. Sampled all US citizens
  with phones.
• Random samples eliminate sample bias
• Random sample when every element in the
  population has an equal chance of being selected
  into the sample.
• Lotto number drawings

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Chapter 2 Research Methods
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Chapter 2 Research methods

• If you are interested in finding out how many
  hours per week the average full-time college
  student in the US studies, what would be your
  population?
• Your sample?
• Which study would you prefer to do? Why?

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Chapter 2 Research methods

• Non-experimental Research Methods contd
• Survey limitations
• - social desirability When people change their
  actual attitudes, values, beliefs, etc. in order
  to please the experimenter and/or to appear
  politically correct.
• In other words, when people lie on a survey to
  make themselves look or feel good.
• - anonymous responses helps to eliminate this
  problem somewhat
• - teen survey of sexual activity by the National
  Institute of Health in 1997 vs. 2000. Huge
  increase in abstinence reported. Why??

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods.
• 4. Correlational research.
• - examines the relationship between two
  variables as they occur naturally
• - hands-off
• - no experimenter manipulation or control
• - real world data
• - heavily quantitative
• - correlation coefficient (r2)
• - frequently used to predict behavior

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Chapter 2 Research methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods.
• Correlation coefficient.
• A number with a range of -1.0 and 1.0 that
  expresses numerically the relationship between
  two variables.
• The sign of the number indicates the direction
  the two variables are moving in relation to each
  other
• A positive correlation means both variables are
  moving in the same direction (e.g. temperature
  outside and of ice cream cones consumed)
• A negative correlation means both variables are
  moving in opposite directions (e.g. temperature
  outside and the number of layers of clothing)

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Chapter 2 research methods

• Non-experimental research Methods.
• Correlation coefficient (contd).
• The number itself represents the strength of the
  relationship. The closer the number is to 1.0,
  regardless of the sign, the stronger the
  relationship.
• For example, which number represents the
  strongest correlation coefficient?
• a. -.72
• b. .63
• c. -.56
• d. .49

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-experimental Research Methods.
• Correlation coefficients.
• What do the numbers mean?
• Say you have 2 variables height and IQ, and you
  want to find out if there is a relationship
  between these two variables. Because you can NOT
  control an individuals height or IQ, you decide
  to do correlational research.

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• If you have a perfect 1.0 correlation, it means
  that for every 1 increase in height, you will
  see a 1 point increase in IQ. In other words,
  there is a perfect 1 to 1 correspondence.
• If you have a .90 correlation, it means that for
  every 1 increase in height, you will see a .90
  increase in IQ.
• If you have a .80 correlation, it means that for
  every 1 increase in height, you will see a .80
  increase in IQ.
• What about a negative correlation coefficient?
  See if you can figure out what would happen in
  the above examples if the numbers were negative
  instead of positive?

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Non-Experimental Research Methods contd
• 4. Correlational research Limitations.
• - correlation does NOT mean causation!!!
• - Why do we get colds more frequently in the
  winter months? Is it because it is cold outside?
  What is really going on?
• - in correlational research, there is a lack of
  experimenter control over other factors
• - these other factors are called extraneous
  variables, third variables or confounds ?
• - only in experimental research can we conclude
  that there is a cause and effect relationship -
  by controlling for other factors

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• The human sneeze can travel at speeds well beyond
  100 mph and can reach as far as 30ft

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Non-Experimental Research Methods Matching Review

• an in-depth analysis of a single individual or
  subject
• used to measure the covert behaviors of many
  people
• subject to the problem of observer bias
• when people behave differently when they know
  they are being watched
• when people lie on a survey in order to look good
  to the researcher
• when the experimenter intentionally looks for a
  behavior to occur
• when the people in your sample are different from
  the population
• The entire group of people that you are
  interested in studying
• A method used when you are trying to determine
  the relationship between two variables that you
  can not control

• Observer bias
• Observer effect
• Sample
• Population
• Sample bias
• Social desirability
• Survey
• Case study
• Naturalistic observation
• Correlational research

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Non-Experimental Research Review

• A relationship between two variables where one
  variable increases as the other decreases
• A relationship between two variables where one
  variable increase as the other increases
• A detailed description of behaviors observed in
  their naturally occurring environment
• A subset of the population
• factors that were not controlled for that may be
  causing the effect observed
• When every element in the population has an equal
  chance of being selected into the sample
• its main limitation is that the results can not
  be generalized to the entire population
• A type of research used to solve a problem in the
  real world
• A type of research used to build a theory

• Observational research
• Sample
• Population
• Confounds
• Random sample
• Case study
• Basic research
• Applied research
• Positive correlation
• Negative correlation

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Chapter 2 Methods

• Experimental Research.
• Typically conducted in a laboratory setting
• Does not occur in the real world
• Experimenter has control over outside factors or
  confounds
• Experimenter intentionally manipulates or changes
  factors
• Hands-on experimenter manipulates and controls
  variables in the study.

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Chapter 2 - Methods

• There are two types of variables in experimental
  research
• Independent variable (IV) the variable that is
  intentionally changed or manipulated by the
  researcher. the cause
• - sometimes you have different levels of the
  independent variable. For example, the milligram
  levels of a new drug.
• Dependent variable (DV) the variable that is
  used to measure any change. the effect

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• In experimental research, any change in the DV is
  seen as a direct result of the IV due to
  experimenter control
• Potential confounds are controlled for
• - The independent variable usually precedes or
  comes before the dependent variable in time.

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Chapter 2 - Methods

• Typically, there are at least two groups of
  subjects in experimental research
• Experimental group. This is the group of
  subjects who receives the independent variable
  that you are most interested in.
• Control group. This is the group of subjects who
  do NOT receive any form of the independent
  variable.
• The control group is the standard to which all
  other groups are compared.
• Control groups allow researchers to rule out
  confounds
• In a well-designed study, subjects are randomly
  assigned to either the experimental or control
  group

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Chapter 2 MethodsAssignment Labeling
variables

• In each example, label the IV, the DV, the
  experimental group and the control group. If a
  control group is lacking, add one to the study.
• Researchers are interested in the effects of
  violent TV on aggressive behavior in children.
  100 Children in 2nd grade are randomly assigned
  to watch a video. Half of the children are shown
  a ½ hour video of Barney, and the other half of
  the children are shown a ½ hour video of the
  Power Rangers. After the videos are shown, all
  children are given a ½ hour of recess. Any
  violent or aggressive behavior is recorded.

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Chapter 2 - Research Methods

• 2. Researchers are interested in the effects of
  testosterone on violent and aggressive behavior.
  Male rats are given injections for 1 month of the
  following 10 mg of a saline solution, 10mg of
  testosterone, 20 mg of testosterone, or no
  injections at all. Any violent or aggressive
  behaviors were noted.
• 3. Researchers are interested in the effects of a
  new drug on children with ADHD and their ability
  to pay attention in the classroom. 200 ten year
  old boys with ADHD were randomly assigned to one
  of four conditions no drug, placebo drug, 10mg
  of new drug, and 10mg of ritalin (the drug that
  has often been used to treat ADHD). Their ability
  to pay attention in the classroom was measured
  after the drugs were administered.

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Chapter 2 - Methods

• Read the paragraph below and then see if you can
  answer the following questions
• Researchers are interested in whether or not
  smoking marijuana causes an increase in appetite.
  100 subjects are randomly assigned to smoke
  either a marijuana cigarette, or a regular
  nicotine cigarette. After the subjects finish
  smoking, they are given a gallon of vanilla ice
  cream, and told that they can eat as much ice
  cream as they would like. The of grams of ice
  cream consumed is their measure of appetite.
• What is the IV in this study? The DV?

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• - Results Subjects who smoked marijuana ate
  significantly more ice cream than those who
  smoked the regular nicotine cigarette.
• Can you conclude with confidence that smoking
  marijuana led to an increase in appetite?
• What other potential confounds could be at work
  here?

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

• Potential confounds
• Lactose intolerant
• Gender (Male/Female)
• When the subject last ate
• How much the subject likes ice cream
• What if all confounds are controlled for. Can
  you then conclude with confidence that smoking
  marijuana leads to an increase in appetite?

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Chapter 2 - Assignment

• Critical Thinking Assignment1 select three
  articles from the links below and see if the
  headline is true or false based on the actual
  study described in the article. 5 pages minimum
  APA style.
• Be sure to include A brief summary. What type
  of research method was used in each study? Was
  it experimental? If yes, label any variables IV?
  DV? Experimental group? Control group? Etc. Was
  is non-experimental? If yes, which
  non-experimental method was used? What was the
  sample? How was the sample selected? Was it
  random? For all studies, what were the
  conclusions? Do you agree with their findings?
  What are some potential confounds? Type this up,
  and hand it in for credit for your paper.

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Assignment 1 links

• 1. Music lessons improve kids' brain
  development, memory
• Authoritarian parents have fat kids
• Chocolate really does make us feel better
• Anorexia largely determined by heredity
• Soda causes obesity, researchers assert
• Spanking children fuels aggression, anxiety
• Eating pizza cuts cancer risk
• Breastfeeding fights arthritis
• Church attendance is good for your health
• Video games increase aggression
• Higher beer prices cut gonorrhea rates
• Early unsolicited sexual encounters leads to a
  life of crime
• "Wash Your Hands" signs only work for women
• Luckiest people born in the summer
• ANY type of TV program harms toddlers
• Snooze or lose memory retention enhanced by
  sleep

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Research Methods just for fun ?

• Funny article to read about correlation and
  causation.
• Correlation and causation