Social

1
Social Personality Development in the Preschool
Years

• Chapter 8
• Development Across
• the Lifespan

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Self Concept in the School Years Thinking
About the Self

• During the preschool period, children wonder
  about the nature of self
• The way they answer the question Who am I? at
  this stage may affect their whole life!

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(Self concept in the preschool years, continued)

• Preschoolers begin to form their SELF-CONCEPT
  (their identity, or their set of beliefs about
  what one is like as an individual).
• Youngsters typically overestimate their skills
  and knowledge (their self concepts are NOT
  necessarily accurate).
• They also begin to develop a view of self that
  reflects the way their particular culture
  considers the self.

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Different cultural philosophies may lead to
differences in how children view the self during
the preschool years

1. Asian societies tend to have a COLLECTIVE
   ORIENTATION, promoting the notion of
   interdependence, blending in, and being
   interconnected.
2. Western cultures tend to Preschoolers self
   concepts are NOT only the result of parental
   influence, but also of social and cultural
   influence! embrace an INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION
   that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness,
   and competition.

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In short

• Preschoolers develop their self-concepts as a
  result of how their parents treat them AND based
  on the society and culture they live in!
• (NATURE NURTURE!!)

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Psychosocial Development
According to Erik Eriksons theory of
psychosocial development, preschoolers have
already passed through a couple of Developmental
stages.
As discussed in Chapter 6

• PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT encompasses changes in
  the understanding individuals have of themselves
  as members of society, and in their comprehension
  of the meaning of others behavior.

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More about Eriksons theory

• Remember that Erikson proposed an 8 stage theory
  of psychosocial development, from infancy to old
  age
• To pass through the stages, a conflict/crisis
  must be resolved at each stage
• ? From age 3 to 6, children experience the
  INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT STAGE, the period during
  which children experience conflict between
  independence of action and the sometimes negative
  results of that action.

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The initiative-versus-guilt stage, continued

• Conflict occurs between the desire to become more
  independent and autonomous and the guilt that
  may occur
• Preschoolers with supportive parents independent
  autonomous
• Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective
  parents shame self-doubt
• The foundational concept of this stage is that
  children become aware that they are people too!
  They begin to make decisions and shape the kind
  of person they are to become!

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Developing Racial Ethnic Awareness

• By the time they are 3 or 4 years of age,
  preschoolers distinguish between members of
  different races and begin to understand the
  significance of race in society.
• Some youngsters begin to show preferential
  feelings for members of their own race.

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(Developing Racial Ethnic Awareness, continued)

• Many minority children experience ambivalence
  over the meaning of their racial identity.
• In some studies, as many as 90 of African
  American children reacted more negatively to
  drawings of black children than white children.
• WHY?
• Not because of lower self esteem
• The reason the influence of the dominant,
  predominantly white culture

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More about the influence of the dominant,
predominantly White culture

• Peggy McIntosh
• White Privilege Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack
  (1988)
• Describing White privilege makes one newly
  accountable
• Talks about how she came to realize that
  African-Americans can not count on conditions
  that Caucasian Americans take for granted as
  members of the dominant group
• I can turn on the TV or open to the front page
  of the paper and see people of my race widely and
  positively represented

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(Developing Racial Ethnic Awareness, continued)

• Some preschool age children may experience RACE
  DISSONANCE, the phenomenon in which minority
  youngsters indicate preference for white values
  or people.

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Gender Identity Developing Femaleness Maleness

• Gender, the sense of being male or female, is
  well established in young children. (Sex
  typically refers to sexual anatomy.)
• One way gender is manifested is in play.
• During the preschool years boys increasingly play
  with boys.
• Girls tend to play with girls.
• Gender out-weighs ethnic variables when it comes
  to play
• An Asian American boy would prefer to play with
  an African American boy than with an Asian
  American girl

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(Gender Identity Developing Femaleness
Maleness, continued)

• Preschoolers also begin to develop expectations
  about appropriate behavior for girls and boys.
• Like adults, preschoolers expect males to be more
  independent, forceful and competitive and females
  to be warm, nurturing, expressive and submissive.
  
• These are expectations and not truths about
  actual behavior! But viewing the world this way
  affects preschoolers behavior!
• However, young children typically hold stronger
  gender-stereotypes than adults.

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Several theoretical explanations for gender
related attitudes exist.

• Biological perspectives argue that physical
  characteristics associated with the different
  sexes, hormone differences, and differences in
  the structure of female and male brains might
  lead to gender differences.
• (inborn genetic factors ? gender differences)

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(Theoretical explanations for gender related
attitudes, continued)

• Psychoanalytic perspectives attribute gender
  differences to IDENTIFICATION, the process in
  which children attempt to be similar to their
  same-sex parent, incorporating the parent's
  attitudes and values.
• (gender development results from moving thru
  stages related to biological urges)

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(Theoretical explanations for gender related
attitudes, continued)

• Social-learning approaches argue that children
  learn gender-related behavior and expectations
  from direct training and from their observation
  of others, including the media.
• (Gender related behavior expectations learned
  from observations of others in their environment)

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(Theoretical explanations for gender related
attitudes, continued)

• Cognitive approaches argue that individuals
  develop a GENDER IDENTITY, the perception of
  oneself as male or female.
• To do this they develop a GENDER SCHEMA (a
  cognitive framework that organizes information
  relevant to gender).
• Preschoolers begin developing "rules"about what
  is right, and what is inappropriate, for males
  and females.

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(The cognitive approach as an explanation for
gender related attitudes, continued)

• By the time they are 4 or 5 years of age,
  children develop an understanding of GENDER
  CONSTANCY (the belief that people are permanently
  males or females, depending on fixed,
  unchangeable biological factors).
• Sandra Bem believes that one can minimize rigid
  views of gender by encouraging children to be
  ANDROGYNOUS (a state in which gender roles
  encompass characteristics thought typical of both
  sexes)
• Males as assertive gentle,
• Females as empathetic competitive

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Preschoolers' Social Lives

• ?The preschool years are marked by increased
  interactions with the world at large.
• Around age 3, children begin to develop real
  friendships.
• Peers come to be seen as individuals with special
  qualities.
• Relationships are based on companionship, play,
  and entertainment.
• Friendship is focused on the carrying out of
  shared activities (rather than just being in the
  same place at the same time!).

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With age, preschooler's view of friendship
evolves.

• Older preschoolers see friendship as a continuing
  state, and as a stable relationship that has
  meaning beyond the immediate moment.
• Older preschoolers pay more attention to concepts
  such as trust, support, and shared interests.
• Even by age 3, children are interested in
  maintaining smooth social relationships with
  their friends, trying to avoid disagreements.

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(Preschool Social Life,continued)
Some children are more readily liked by their
peers than others.

• Qualities associated with disliked children
• more likely to be aggressive
• More disruptive,
• impose themselves on their peers
• less cooperative
• do not take turns.

• Qualities associated with popularity
• physical attractiveness
• being outgoing
• being sociable
• speaking more
• smiling more
• having a greater understanding of others emotions

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(Preschool Social Life,continued)

• Are unpopular preschoolers destined for a life
  with few friends? Not necessarily!
• Social skills that are associated with popularity
  can be taught by parents and teachers as well as
  enhanced through a warm, supportive home
  environment.

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Playing by the Rules How Play Affects Social
Personality Development

• Categorizing play
• Three year olds typically engage in FUNCTIONAL
  PLAY which involves simple, repetitive
  activities, that is, doing something for the sake
  of being active.
• (playing with dolls, skipping, jumping rope, etc)

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(Categorizing play, continued)

• By age 4, children typically engage in
  CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY which involves manipulating
  objects to produce or build something (legos,
  puzzles, etc.)
• Constructive play allows children to test
  developing cognitive skills.
• Constructive play allows children to practice
  motor skills.
• Constructive play allows children to problem
  solve.
• Constructive play allows children to learn to
  cooperate

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The social aspects of play(How Play Affects
Social Personality Development, continued)
Mildred Parten (1932) noted various types
of play

• PARALLEL PLAY is when children play with similar
  toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact
  with each other.

• ONLOOKER PLAY occurs when children simply watch
  others play but do not actually participate
  themselves

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(Mildred Partens various types of play,
continued)

• In COOPERATIVE PLAY, children genuinely play with
  one another, taking turns, playing games, or
  devising contests.

• ASSOCIATIVE PLAY is where two or more children
  actually interact with one another by sharing or
  borrowing toys or materials, although they do not
  do the same thing.

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More about the effects of play on social and
personality development

• Associative and cooperative play generally do not
  emerge until the end of the preschool years.
• The nature of a child's play is influenced by
  their social experiences.
• Children with preschool experience engage in more
  social behaviors earlier (associative
  cooperative play, etc.)

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(the effects of play on social and personality
development, continued)

• Play becomes increasing unrealistic during the
  preschool period (pretend play increases)
• using a matchbox as a car instead of a metal toy
  car
• Vygotsky argues that pretend play (especially
  social) aids cognitive development and
  understanding of the world/other cultures
• Cultural background also results in different
  styles of play

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• Comparing Play Complexity
• Clear differences exist in patterns of play

• Korean American more parallel play than Anglo
  American
• Anglo Americans more pretend play

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The continuing development of theory of Mind and
its affect on children's play

• Recall from chapter 6 that Theory of mind refers
  to knowledge and beliefs about the mental world.
• Using theory of mind, children are able to come
  up with explanations for how others think and the
  reasons for their behaving the way they do.

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(Theory of Mind and its affect on children's
play, continued)

• During preschool years, children increasingly can
  see the world through others perspectives.
• Preschool children can understand that people
  have motives and reasons for their behavior.
• These changes in preschoolers theory of mind
  affect how they play (and contributes to social
  personality development)

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(Theory of Mind and its affect on children's
play, continued)

• ? There are also cultural differences in theory
  of mind.
• Western children are likely to regard others
  behavior as due to the kind of people they are,
  seeing it as a function of their personalities.
• Non-Western children may see others behavior as
  produced by forces that are less under their
  personal control, such as unhappy gods or bad
  fortune
• ? These cultural differences also contribute to
  differences in social personality development!

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Discipline Teaching Preschoolers Desired
Behaviors

• Diana Baumrind (1980) notes 3 major types of
  parenting or patterns of discipline
• AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS
• PERMISSIVE PARENTS
• AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS

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(Diana Baumrinds 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• 1) AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS are controlling,
  punitive, rigid, and cold, and whose word is law
  they value strict, unquestioning obedience from
  their children and do not tolerate expressions of
  disagreement..

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(Diana Baumrinds 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• 2) PERMISSIVE PARENTS provide lax and
  inconsistent feedback and require little of their
  children.
• 2 types of permissive parents
• ? Permissive-indifferent parents are usually
  uninvolved in their children's lives.
• Their children tend to be dependent and moody.
• Their children also tend to have low social
  skills and low self-control

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(2 types of permissive parents, continued)

• ? Permissive-indulgent parents are more involved
  with their children, but they place little or no
  limits or control on their behavior.
• Their children typically show low control and low
  social skills.
• However, these children tend to feel that they
  are especially privileged.

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(Diana Baumrinds 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• 3) AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS are firm, setting clear
  and consistent limits, but try to reason with
  their children giving explanations for why they
  should behave in a particular way.

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(Diana Baumrinds 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• Children of authoritative parents tend to fare
  best they are independent, friendly with their
  peers, self-assertive, and cooperative parents
  are not always consistent in their parenting or
  discipline styles.

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(Diana Baumrinds 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline, continued)

• Children whose parents engage in aspects of the
  authoritative style related to supportive
  parenting
• Supportive parenting encompasses parental warmth,
  proactive teaching, calm discussion during
  disciplinary episodes, and interest and
  involvement in children's peer activities show
  better adjustment and are protected from the
  consequences of later adversity.

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(parenting patterns of discipline, continued)

• Childrearing practices that parents are urged to
  follow reflect cultural perspectives about the
  nature of children and the role of the parents.
• Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are
  more likely to involve strict control. Such
  control is seen as a measure of parents
  involvement in and concern for the welfare of
  their children.
• In Western societies, and especially in the
  United States, parents are more often advised to
  use authoritative methods.

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• ? No one parenting style is is likely to be
  successful or universally accepted! Cultural
  context must be taken into consideration

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Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment

• Obviously child abuse, neglect and maltreatment
  seriously affect the social personality
  development of many preschoolers
• Five children are killed by their caretakers
  every day.
• 140,000 others are physically injured every year.
  
• Three million children are abused or neglected
  annually in the U. S.

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• Types of Child Abuse

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(Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment,
continued)

• ? Child abuse can occur in any home, though it is
  most frequent in families living in stressful
  environment.
• Poverty
• Single-parent homes
• Families with high levels of marital discord

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Most parents don't intend to abuse their
children

• Children who are fussy, resistant to control,
  slow to adapt to new situations, overly anxious,
  frequent bed wetters, and who have developmental
  delays are more prone to being victims of abuse.
• Labeling children as being at higher risk for
  abuse does not make them responsible for their
  abuse (blaming the victim)

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There are many reasons for why child abuse occurs

• There is a vague demarcation between permissible
  and impermissible forms of physical punishment or
  violence.
• Factors related to the privacy of child care in
  Western societies present unrealistic
  expectations about children's abilities.
• The CYCLE-OF-VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that the
  abuse and neglect children suffer predisposes
  them as adults to be abusive.

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(child abuse, continued)

• Not all abuse is physical PSYCHOLOGICALMALTREATME
  NT is abuse that occurs when parents or other
  caregivers harm children's behavioral, cognitive,
  emotional, or physical functioning.
• Overt behaviors (frightening, humiliating
  children, threats of abandonment)
• Covert behaviors (neglect ignoring child,
  emotionally unresponsive, inattentive to needs)

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(child abuse, continued)

• Obstacles stand in the way of identifying cases
  in the U.S
• Privacy issues
• levels of harm requirements
• The consequences of psychological maltreatment
• Some preschoolers suffer lasting damage
• Low self esteem lying
• misbehavior aggression
• Underachievement criminal behavior
• suicide

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Some children are resilient and grow into
psychologically healthy adults despite abuse and
maltreatment (sometimes with the help of
psychologists)

• RESILIENCE refers to the ability to overcome
  circumstances that place a child at high risk for
  psychological or physical damage.
• Resilient children are affectionate, easygoing,
  good communicators, intelligent.
• They are able to elicit positive responses from
  others.
• They tend to feel that they can shape their own
  fate and are not dependent on others or luck.

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Moral Development During the Preschool Years

• Changes in moral development are an important
  aspect of growth during the preschool years
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT refers to changes in people's
  sense of justice and of what is right and wrong,
  and in their behavior related to moral issues.
• Several theoretical approaches have evolved for
  explaining moral development in children.

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Piagets view of moral development

• HETERONOMOUS MORALITY is the initial stage of
  moral development (from 4 to 7 years old) in
  which rules are seen as invariant and
  unchangeable.
• Youngsters in this stage do not take intention
  into account.
• Children in the heteronomous stage also believe
  in IMMANENT JUSTICE, the notion that broken rules
  earn immediate punishment

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(Piagets view of moral development, continued)

• The next stage, according to Piaget, is the
  incipient cooperation stage (from age 7 to 10).
• Here children become more social and learn the
  rules.
• They play according to a shared conception of the
  rules

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(Piagets view of moral development, continued)

• During the autonomous cooperation stage
  (beginning at age 10) children become fully aware
  that game rules can be modified if the people who
  play them agree.
• Critics of Piaget's theory argue that he
  underestimated the age at which children's moral
  skills develop.

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More theoretical approaches for explaining
moral development in children

• Social-learning approaches to morality focus on
  how the environment influences children's moral
  behavior.
• Prosocial behavior (helping behavior that
  benefits others
• In this view, moral conduct is learned through
  reinforcement and modeling.
• Preschoolers are more apt to model the behavior
  of warm, responsive adults and models viewed as
  highly competent or high in prestige.

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(Social-learning approaches to morality,
continued)

• Children do more than simply mimic modeled
  behavior.
• By observing others behavior, they begin to
  learn society's norms.
• This leads to ABSTRACT MODELING, the process of
  developing more general rules and principles that
  underlie behavior.

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Another approach to morality

• According to some developmentalists, EMPATHY -
  the understanding of what another individual
  feels - lies at the heart of some kinds of moral
  behavior.
• Empathy starts early (1 yr old infants cry if
  others do)
• During the preschool years, empathy continues to
  grow

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(Another approach to moralityempathy emotions
continued)

• Positive emotions such as empathy, sympathy, and
  admiration lead children to behave in a moral
  fashion and thus contributes to social and
  personality development
• Also, the desire to avoid negative feelings leads
  them to act in moral helpful ways (Freud)

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Aggression and Violence in Preschool Children

• AGGRESSION is the intentional injury or harm to
  another person.
• Infants do not act aggressively, however, by the
  preschool years children demonstrate true
  aggression.

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(Aggression and Violence in Preschool Children,
continued)

• The frequency and duration of aggressive acts
  declines throughout early childhood.
• Aggression is a relatively stable trait, the most
  aggressive preschoolers tend to be the most
  aggressive school aged children.

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There are varying explanations for aggressive
behavior among children

• Freud claimed we all have a death drive, which
  leads us to act aggressively.
• Konrad Lorenz argues that humans, like all
  animals, share a fighting instinct.
• Sociobiologists, scientists who consider the
  biological roots of social behavior, argue that
  aggression facilitates the goal of strengthening
  the species and the gene pool in general.

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(explanations for aggressive behavior among
children, continued)

• Cognitive approaches argue that aggression stems,
  in part, from the manner in which children
  interpret other's actions and situations.
• Social-learning approaches contend that
  aggression is based on prior learning, and how
  social and environmental conditions and models
  teach individuals to be aggressive.

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Even though most children are not exposed
directly to real-life violence, television models
aggression for them!

• TV has a clear impact on cognitive development
• We know that preschoolers imitate violence they
  see on cartoons
• Does imitation lead to actual aggression?
• Tough to answer definitively!
• Conducting a true experiment would be unethical
• Correlational studies clearly suggest subsequent
  aggression
• Just as kids can learn aggression, they can
  unlearn! Observation of nonaggressive models
  leads to reduced aggression levels.

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• Television Acts of Violence

• According to research, violence occurred on TV in
  Washington, D.C. during a weekday during every
  time period!

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Most children are at least occasionally
aggressive? Aggression is a relatively stable
characteristic? Aggressive preschoolers become
aggressive school age children? There are
serious affects on social and personality
development in preschool children
All of the psychological theories explored have
interesting aspects to them, and it is important
that we continue to try to understand them!
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