VOLATILE OILS

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VOLATILE OILS
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VOLATILE OILS

• All official volatile oils are of vegetable
  origin.
• Normally pre-exist in the plant stored in a
  special secretory tissue (e.g. Citrus peel oil
  cells or oil ducts in umbelliferous fruits).
• EXCEPTION Oil of bitter almond formed by
  hydrolysis of the glycosides.

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USES OF VOLATILE OILS

• Therapeutically (Oil of Eucalyptus)
• Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
• Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
• Starting materials to synthesize other compounds
  (Oil of Turpentine)
• Anti-septic due to high phenols (Oil of Thyme).
  Also as a preservative (oils interfere with
  bacterial respiration)
• Anti-spasmodic (Ginger, Lemon balm, Rosemary,
  Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel, Caraway)
• Aromatherapy

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DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS

• Volatile oils are products which are generally
  complex in composition, consisting of the
  volatile principles contained in plants, and are
  more or less modified during the preparation
  process.
• Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official
  oils
• Steam distillation
• Expression
• 4 Main types of volatile oils
• Concretes
• Pomades
• Resinoids
• Absolutes

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CONCRETES

• Prepared from raw materials of vegetable origin
  (bark, flowers, leafs, roots etc.)
• Extracted by HC type solvents, rather than
  distillation or expression Becomes necessary
  when the essential oil is adversely affected by
  hot water or steam (e.g. jasmine).
• Produces a more true-to-nature fragrance.

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CONCRETES

• Concretes contain about 50 wax and 50
  essential oil (jasmine).
• Ylang ylang (concrete volatile) contains 80
  essential oil and 20 wax.
• Advantages of concretes they are more stable
  and concentrated than pure essential oils.

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POMADES

• True pomades are (volatile oil) products of a
  process known as enfleurage (hot or cold).
• Enfleurage is used for obtaining aromatic
  materials from flowers containing volatile oils
  to produce perfume long after they were cut.

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ENFLEURAGE METHOD

• A glass plate is covered with a thin coating of
  especially prepared and odourless fat (called a
  chassis).
• The freshly cut flowers are individually laid on
  to the fat which in time becomes saturated with
  their essential oils. The flowers are renewed
  with fresh material.
• Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as
  pomade, may be treated with alcohol to extract
  the oil from the fat.

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RESINOIDS

• Prepared from natural resinous material (dried
  material) by extraction with a non-aqueous
  solvent, e.g. Petroleum ether or hexane.
• E.g. Balsams Peru balsam or benzoin resins
  (amber or mastic) Oleoresin (copaiba balsam and
  turpentine) Oleogum resins (frankincense and
  myrrh)

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RESINOIDS

• Can be viscous liquids, semi-solid or solid.
• Usually homogeneous mass of non-crystalline
  character.
• Uses in perfumery as fixatives to prolong the
  effect of a fragrance.

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ABSOLUTES

• Obtained from a concrete, pomade, or a resinoid
  by alcoholic extraction.
• The extraction process may be repeated.
• The ethanol solution is cooled filtered to
  eliminate waxes.
• The ethanol is then removed by distillation.
• They are usually highly concentrated viscous
  liquids.

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Fx OF VOLATILE OILS

• In most cases, the biological function of the
  terpenoids of essential oils remains obscure it
  is thought that they play an ecological role
  protection from predators attraction of
  pollinators.

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LOCALIZATION

• Synthesis accumulation of essential oils are
  generally associated with the presence of
  specialized histological structures, often
  located on or near the surface of the plant
• - Oil cells of Zingiberaceae
• - Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae
• - Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae
• - Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae
  (Compositeae)

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VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION

• Mixtures of HCs and oxygenated compounds derived
  from these HCs.
• Oil of turpentine mainly HCs
• Oil of Clove mainly oxygenated compounds
• EXCEPTION Oils derived from glycosides (e.g.
  bitter almond oil mustard oil).
• Oxygenated compounds responsible for the
  odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly water
  soluble Rose water Orange Water more
  alcohol soluble.
• Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are
  aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with
  terpenes.
• Some compounds are aromatic, but terpenoid in
  origin (e.g. Thymol Thyme)

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

• Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes
  based on their biosynthetic origin
• Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate
  mevalonic acid pathway)
• Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic
  acid-phenylpropanoid route)
• Miscellaneous Origin

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A. TERPENES

• Terpenes, or terpenoids, are the largest group of
  secondary products (metabolites).
• They are all formed from acetyl CoA or glycolytic
  intermediates.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

• All terpenes are formed from 5-C elements
• Isoprene is the basic structural element.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

• Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C
  atoms they contain
• 10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units)
  monoterpenes
• 15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called
  sesquiterpenes.
• 20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.
• Larger terpenes (30 Carbons) are called
  triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40 Carbons called
  tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids.

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TERPENOIDS

• Terpenoids contain only the most volatile
  terpenes (i.e. molecular weight is not too high)
  ? mono and sesquiterpenes
• May occur as oxygenated derivatives, e.g.
  alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, oxides
  esters.

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EXAMPLES OF TERPENES

1. LIMONENE
2. MENTHOL
3. BORNEOL
4. SESQUITERPENES

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i. LIMONENE

• Structural classification Monocyclic terpene
• Functional Classification Unsaturated HC
• Occurrence Citrus fruit

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ii. MENTHOL

• Structural classification
• Monocyclic with hydroxyl group
• Functional classification Alcohol
• Occurrence Peppermint

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iii. BORNEOL

• Functional Classification ////
• Occurrence Cinnamon

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iv. SESQUITERPENES

• (Contain 3 isoprene units)
• Acyclic E.g. Farnesol
• Monocyclic E.g. Bisobolol
• Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene (Chamomile)

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B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

• Many are phenols are phenol esters
• E.g. Vanillin

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PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS

• Almost entirely volatile without decomposition.
• Density Most are less than 1g/ml.
• 2 are heavier Oil of Cinnamon and Clove oil.
• Soluble in ether, chloroform alcohol.
• Slightly soluble in water give it a
  characteristic odour taste.
• Leaves a temporary translucent stain on paper
  which disappears as the oil volatilizes.
• Most are colourless. Oxidize on exposure to air
  and resinify ? colour becomes darker (odour
  changes slightly).
• All are characteristic odours.
• Most are optically active.

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PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS

• Essential oils may be produced
• By steam
• - Simple steam distillation
• - Saturated steam distillation
• - Hydrodiffusion
• By expression
• Other Methods
• Concretes Resinoids may be produced
• By solvent extraction
• By methods using oils fats
• By extraction by supercritical gasses

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ESSENTIAL OILS i.STEAM DISTILLATION

• a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION
• Plant material is immersed directly in a still
  filled with water. This is then brought to a
  boil.
• Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a cold
  surface.
• Essential oil separates based on difference in
  density and immiscibility.

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b. SATURATED STEAM

• Plant does not come into contact with the water ?
  steam is injected through the plant material
  placed on perforated trays.
• It is possible to operate under moderate
  pressure.
• Advantages Limits the alteration of the
  constituents of the oil
• It shortens the duration of the treatment
• It conserves energy
• It can also be conducted on on-line in automated
  set ups.

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c. HYDRODIFFUSION

• Pulses of steam is sent through the plant
  material at very low pressure from (top to
  bottom).
• ADVANTAGE Normally produces a product of high
  quality.
• Saves time and energy.

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EXPRESSION (E.G.OF CITRUS EPICARPS)

• The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the
  ruptured secretory cavities are recovered.
• CLASSIC PROCESS an abrasive action is applied
  on the surface of the fruit in a flow of water.
  The solid waste is eliminated, and the essential
  oil separated from the aqueous phase by
  centrifugation.
• OTHER machines break the cavities by depression,
  and collect the essential oil directly ?
  prevents the degradation linked to the action of
  water.

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EXPRESSION OF CITRUS EPICARPS

• Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or
  sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the
  essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray
  of water after the abrasion (scarification
  puncture by pins) before or during the expression
  of the fruit juice.
• Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows
  recycling, and markedly increases the final yield
  of essential oil.
• Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the
  fruit juices (by vacuum de-oiling)

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iii. OTHER METHODS

• Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum.
  In this procedure, the plant is heated
  selectively by microwave radiation in a chamber
  inside which the pressure is reduced
  sequentially.
• fresh plants require no added water.
• ADVANTAGE This method is fast, consumes little
  energy and yields a product which is most often
  of a higher quality than the traditional steam
  distillation product.

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PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES RESINOIDS

• SOLVENT EXTRACTION
• Extraction is generally preceded by a process of
  bruising the fresh, wilted or semi-desiccated
  organs, chopping herbaceous drugs, pounding roots
  rhizomes or turning wood into chips or
  shavings.
• The procedure is conducted in specialized
  facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.

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SOLVENT EXTRACTION

• The solvent selection is influenced by technical
  economical factors
• - Selectivity (being a good solvent for the
  specific constituents).
• - Stability (chemical inertness)
• - Boiling point should not be so high that the
  solvent can be completely eliminated nor too
  low, to limit losses control cost
• - Handling safety
• Solvents most used are aliphatic HCs petroleum
  ether, hexane, propane liquid butane.
• Although benzene is a good solvent, its toxicity
  increasingly limits is use.

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SOLVENT EXTRACTION

• At the end of the procedure, the solvent
  contained in the plant material is recovered by
  steam injection.
• Main disadvantages of solvent extraction
• - Lack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances
  may end up in the concretes render further
  purification necessary.
• - The toxicity of solvents ? leads to the
  restrictive regulations regarding their use
• - Residues in the final product.

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ii. METHODS USING OILS FATS

• These procedures take advantage of the
  liposolubility of the fragrant components of
  plants in fats.
• a. Enfleurage the plant material is placed
  in contact with the surface of the fat.
  Extraction is achieved by
• Cold diffusion into the fat
• Digestion carried out with heat, by immersing
  the plant in melted fat (also known as hot
  enfleurage).
• The final product is known as a floral pomade.

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METHODS USING OILS FATS

• b. PNEUMATIC METHOD similar in principle to
  the enfleurage process.
• It involves the passage of a current of hot air
  through the flowers.
• The air, laden with suspended (extracted)
  volatile oil, is then passed through a spray of
  melted fat in which the volatile oil is absorbed.

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iii. EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES

• Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the
  density of a liquid the viscosity of a gas ?
  therefore diffuses well through solids, resulting
  in a good solvent.
• CO2 is the main gas used
• Advantages of CO2
• - It is a natural product
• - chemically inert, non-flammable
• - non-toxic
• - easy to completely eliminate
• - selective
• - readily available
• - Inexpensive

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EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES

• DISADVANTAGE Technical constraints
• - High cost of initial investment
• ADVANTAGES
• - obtain extracts which are very close in
  composition to the natural product.
• - It is possible to adjust the selectivity
  viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature
  pressure
• - All result in the increase of popularity of
  this type of method

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EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES

• USES
• Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees,
  prepare hops extracts or to remove nicotine from
  tobacco, the method is now used to
• - Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika,
  celery)
• - Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)
• - Plant oils
• - To produce specified types of a certain
  product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.

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TREATMENTS OF THE OILS

• Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize,
  neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.
• Steam jet under vacuum
• Allows for the elimination of smelly or
  irritating products, and to obtain a final
  product of desired profile.
• Chromatrographic techniques
• This permits a good separation of the essential
  oil from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.

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VARIABILITY FACTORS OF ESSENTIAL OILS

1. Occurrence of Chemotypes
2. Influence of the vegetative cycle
3. Influence of environmental factors
4. Influence of preparation method

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i. CHEMOTYPES

• Chemical breeds commonly occur in plants
  containing volatile oils, e.g. Thyme (Thymus
  vulgaris) has 7 different chemotypes, each with
  slightly different types amounts of volatile
  oils.

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ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE

• Proportions of the different constituents of a
  volatile oil may vary greatly throughout its
  development. Wide ranges are commonly found in
  fennel, carrot and coriander (linalool is higher
  in ripe fruit than unripe fruit). Mentha
  (peppermint) is also greatly affected by the
  vegetative cycle.

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iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

• Temperature, humidity, duration of daylight
  (radiation), and wind patterns all have a direct
  influence on volatile oil content, especially in
  those herbs that have superficial histological
  storage structures (e.g. glandular trichomes).
  When the localization is deeper, the oil quality
  is more constant.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

• e.g. Peppermint long days temperate nights ?
  higher yields of oil menthofuran. Cold nights
  lead to an increase in menthol.
• Laurus nobilis (Bay) volatile oil is greater in
  the southern hemisphere than the northern.
• Citrus higher temperatures higher oil
  content.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

• Cultivation practices also play an important
  factor to the yield quality of the final
  product.
• Fertilization and the amounts of N, P and K have
  been studied for various species.
• The watering regiment also plays an important
  role.

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PREPARATION METHOD

• Because of the volatile nature of the
  constituents of essential oils, the composition
  of the product obtained by steam distillation is
  often different from the constituents originally
  found in the secretory organs of the plant.
• During steam distillation, the water, acidity and
  tempereature may induce hydrolysis of the esters.
  Rearrangements, isomerizations, racemiazations,
  oxidations and other reactions also occur, all of
  which change the composition.

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GINGER Zingiber officinale

• Definition Ginger is the peeled or unpeeled
  rhizome of Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae).
• Common Names Jamaican ginger, Ginger

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Zingiber officinalis - Ginger

• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Jamaica
• China
• India Africa
• HISTORY
• Cultivated in India from the earliest times.
  Used by Greeks and Romans and was a common
  article of commerce in the European Middle Ages.

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CULTIVATION PREPARATION

• Grows well in subtropical temperatures with high
  rainfall.
• Grown by vegetative means.
• Mulching or is necessary as the plant rapidly
  exhausts minerals from the soil.
• When the stems wither, the rhizomes are ready for
  collection.
• Dried.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Scraped/peeled herb has little resemblance to the
  fresh herb (loss in weight shrinkage).
• Occurs in branched pieces hands or races.
• Buds
• No cork
• Aromatic odour pungent taste.
• Unscraped rhizome resembles scraped herb
• Covered with cork (brownish layers)

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Cork cells high starch content
• Cork cells are absent in the scraped drug.
• Outer zone of flattened parenchyma inner zone
  of normal parenchyma.
• Oil cells scattered in the cortex.

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Zingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS

• Volatile oils (1 2)
• Camphene
• Cineole
• Citral
• Borneol
• Gingerol pungent component Anti-inflammatory
• Shogaols increases bile secretion
• Sesquiterpene HCs
• Zingiberene Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)
• Resins
• Starch
• Mucilage

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Zingiber officinale

• VARIETIES
• Chinese Ginger sliced
• African ginger darker (cortex is grey black
  in colour) lacks the odour but more pungent
  than Jamaican herb.
• ALLIED DRUGS
• Japanese ginger Z. mioga
• Preserved ginger undried rhizomes preserved by
  boiling in syrup.
• ADULTERANTS
• Spent ginger
• Vegetable adulterants (detected with
  microscopical examination).

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USES ACTIONS

• ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Stimulant
• Anti-emetic
• Anti-bacterial Anti-fungal
• Sesquiterpene lactones Anti-ulcer
• Gingerol pungent component Anti-inflammatory
• Shogaols increases bile secretion enhanced GIT
  activity
• USES
• Motion Sickness
• Morning Sickness

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CARDAMOM FRUIT OIL

• DEFINITION Cardamom consists of the dried,
  nearly dried ripe fruits of Elettaria cardamomum
  var miniscula (Zingiberaceae).
• PARTS USED Seeds (should be kept in the fruit
  until ready to be used Prevents loss of
  volatile oils).
• (3RD most expensive spice).

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Elettaria cardamomum

• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Sri Lanka
• India
• Guatemala
• HISTORY
• Traditional Indian ceremonies

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PRODUCTION, COLLECTION PREPARATION

• Mainly obtained from cultivated plants
  (propagated by seedlings or vegetatively
  problematic due to virus infection).
• Capsules on the same plant ripen at different
  times important to collect them before they
  split.

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COLLECTION PREPARATION

• Fruits are dried slowly (outdoors or indoors).
• Too rapid drying capsules split shed seeds
• Calyx at the apex of the stalk and the stalk at
  the base may be removed.
• Fruits are graded with a sift into longs,
  mediums, shorts tiny.
• If they have been sulphur bleached (improved
  colour), it will be aired outdoors before packed
  for transport.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Plant is reed-like - gt 4 m, with long leaves
  growing from the rhizome.
• Fruits capsular inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
• Apex shortly beaked shows floral remains.
• Base rounded shows the remain of a stalk.
• Internally the capsule is 3-celled each cell
  contains x2 row of seeds.
• Each seed Slightly angular, 4mm long 3 mm
  broad.
• Colour dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) ?
  paler in unripe seeds.
• Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
• Pungent taste

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Oil cells
• Predominant Parenchyma (yellow colour)
• Cells containing silica
• Starch grains

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VARIETIES ADULTERANTS

• ADULTERATION
• Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp
  (powdered).
• ALLIED HERBS
• Official variety E. cardamomum var miniscula
• Other E. cardamomum var major (more elongated
  sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)
• Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)
• Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)
• Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)

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CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• 2.8 6.2 volatile oil
• Abundant starch (up to 50)
• Fixed oil (1 10)
• Calcium oxalate

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Elettaria ACTIONS USES

• Flavouring agent (curries biscuits)
• Liqueur manufacture
• Small amount is used for pharmaceutical
  manufacture (Compound Tincture of Cardamom).

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CINNAMON Cinnamomum zeylanicum

• DEFINITION Cinnamon is the dried bark of
  Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Cultivated in Sri Lanka, South India,
  Seychelles, Madagascar, Martinique, Cayenne,
  Jamaica Brazil.

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CULTIVATION, COLLECTION PREPARATION

• Grown from seed
• Cut down when 2-3 years old.
• After 5-6 shoots grow from the stump (18 months),
  shoots are harvested, trimmed and fermented.
• Bark is removed.
• Peeled bark is then stretched over a suitable
  stick
• Outer cortex is removed.

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PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum

• Individually scraped barks are placed inside each
  other.
• Compound quills are dried on wooden frames in the
  open air without exposure to direct sunlight.
• Sorted into grades.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Normally received in shorter lengths known as
  cigar lengths.
• Consists of a single or double compound quill
  about 6-10 mm diameter of varying length.
• Thickness of the quill varies according to grade
  (good quality Not gt 0.5mm), bark 10-40mm.
• External surface is yellow-brown, shining, wavy
  lines (pericycle fibres) and occasional scars
  holes (leave/twig positions).
• Inner surface darker, longitudinally striated.
• Odour fragrant
• Taste Warm, sweet aromatic

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Transverse absence of epidermis cork
• Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)
• Secondary phloem is composed of phloem parenchyma
  containing oil mucilage cells, phloem fibres
  medullary rays.
• Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.
• Secretion cells volatile oils and mucilage
• Calcium oxalates

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Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS

• Volatile oils (at least 1.2 )
• Phlobaphenes
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
• Starch

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CINNAMON OIL ADULTERATION ALLIED HERBS

• Adulterants
• Cinnamon Leaf Oil
• Oil of Cassia
• Allied Herbs
• Cayenne Cinnamon C. zeylanicum grown in Brazil
  not used in Britain
• C. loureirii from Vietnam Closely resembles
  C. cassia

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Cinnamomum zeylanicum - USES

• Flavouring agent
• Mild astringent
• Oil Carminative
• Germicide

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LEMON PEEL

• Definition Dried lemon (Limonis Cortex) peel is
  obtained from the fruit of Citrus limon
  (Rutaceae).
• Botanical Description
• Small tree, growing to 3-5 m in height.
• Geographical Sources
• Mediterranean Regions

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Limonis Cortex COLLECTION PREPARATION

• Lemons are collected in January, August
  November, before the green colour changes to
  yellow.
• The smaller fruit, which would not be sold on the
  produce market, are used in the preparation of
  oil of lemon - the peel is removed with a sharp
  knife in the form of a spiral band.

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Limonis Cortex CHARACTERISTICS

• Dried lemon peel occurs in spiral bands (2 cm
  wide 2-3 mm thick).
• The outer surface is rough yellow the inner
  surface is pulpy white (anatomically similar to
  that of an orange peel).
• Odour Strong characteristic
• Taste aromatic bitter

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Limonis Cortex CONSTITUENTS USES

• CONSTITUENTS
• Should contain at least 2.5 volatile oil
• Vitamin C
• Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
• USES
• Flavouring purposes

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LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis

• Definition Lemon oil is the oil expressed from
  the outer part of the fresh pericarp of the ripe
  or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon (Rutaceae).
• BP oil should be obtained by suitable
  mechanical means, without the use of heat, from
  the fresh peel.
• Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but
  this process yields oil of inferior quality.
• Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that
  prepared by expression. Large amounts are used
  for non-pharmaceutical purposes.
• Geographical Sources
• Mediterranean, North South America, Australia
  parts of Africa.

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Preparation of Lemon Oils

• i. Hand Methods
• No longer applicable to pharmaceutical oils

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Production of Lemon Oils

• Machine Processes
• Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed
  oils.
• Machines are designed to release oils from the
  peel via puncture, rasting or cutting and by
  imitating the gentle squeezing action of the
  sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method
  is due to the fact that there is no contact
  between the oil the inner white part of the
  skin.
• The newer machines extract oil more completely
  than the older ones and give a higher yeild
• Distilled Oils
• Although not official, some lemon oils are
  produced by distillation, mainly from the residue
  of the expression processes. It is much cheaper
  than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.

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Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS

• Terpenes mainly limonene
• Sesquiterpenes
• Aldehydes (Citral Citronella)
• Esters
• Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and should
  be protected from the action of air light as
  much as possible.

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Oleum limonis ADULTATION USES

• ADULTERATION
• Oil of turpentine
• Terpenes from terpeneless oil of lemon
• Distilled oil of lemon
• Oil of lemon-grass
• USES
• Perfumery
• Flavouring

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TERPENELESS LEMON OIL

• Definition Oil prepared by concentrating lemon
  oil in vacuum until most of the terpenes have
  been removed, or by solvent partition. The
  concentrate is a terpeneless oil, which has a
  citral content of 40-50 .
• It is equal in flavouring to 10-15 times its
  volume of lemon oil

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BUCHU Agathosma betulina
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Agathosma betulina CONSTITUENS USES

• CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils
• Pulegone
• Menthone isomenthone
• limonene
• Diosmin
• Mucilage
• Resin
• Calcium oxalates
• Buchu camphor Responsible for the diuretic
  action
• USES/ACTIONS
• Diuretic
• Urinary Tract Anti-Septic Used for UTIs

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NUTMEG NUTMEG OIL

• Definition Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the
  seed of Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae).
• Geographical Sources
• Indigenous to the Molucca Islands (Spice Islands)
• Cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia the West
  Indies.

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NUTMEG Myristica fragrans

• HISTORY
• First Introduced to the Europeans by the Arabs.
• Portuguese lost control of the spice trade to the
  Dutch, who maintained complete monopoly by
  destroying all trees in the neighbouring islands
  preventing the export of living seeds.

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CULTIVATION, COLLECTION PREPARATION

• Trees can be grown from fresh seed gown in the
  shell. The seeds germinate after about 5 weeks.
  When the plants are 6 months old, they are
  transplanted to the fields.
• Nutmegs are dried in the shells (process differs
  according to local conditions). Normally they
  are dried in the sun covered at night rainy
  weather. They can also be dried in the oven or
  over low flames.
• When completely dried, the kernel rattles in the
  testa, which is then cracked the nutmeg
  extracted.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Nutmeg trees are evergreen, growing up to 20 m in
  height.
• Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm long 2 cm broad.
• If not heavily limed, the surface is a brown or
  grey brown in colour.
• Odour Strong aromatic
• Taste Pungent and slightly bitter.

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Potassium acid tartrate crystals
• Parenchym with thin brown walls
• Oval oil cells
• Feathery crystals of fat
• Few tannin cells (containing tannin starch)

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NUTMEG ALLIED HERBS

• Papua nutmegs from M. argentea (New Guinea)
  little odour a disagreeable taste.
• Bombay nutmegs M. malabarica (India) lack
  the characteristic odour of the genuine herb.

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NUTMEG OIL

• Nutmeg oil is distilled from the kernels of
  Myristica fragrans.
• CONSTITUENTS
• Pinene
• Sabinene
• Camphene
• Dipentene
• Safrole
• Eugenol eugenol derivatives
• Myristicin a benzene toxic to humans (large
  does of nutmeg or nutmeg oil may cause
  convulsions).

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MACE

• Common mace or Banda mace consists of the dried
  arillus or arillode of M. fragrans.
• Description bright red colour lacks in aroma.
  

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MACE CONSTITUENTS USES

• CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (similar to that of nutmeg)
  eugenol derivatives are the main active
  constituents responsible for the anti-bacterial
  effects.
• Also has 2 anti-microbial resorcinols
  (Malabaricone B and C)

• Nutmegs, maces their oils, are all used for
• Carminatives
• Flavouring
• Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea of nutmeg Ayurveda).

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CLOVE

• DEFINITION Cloves are the dried flower buds of
  Syzygium aromaticum (Eugenia caryophyllus),
  (Myrtaceaea).
• Geographical Sources
• Molucca or Clove Islands, Zanzibar, Pemba,
  Madagascar, Indonesia Brazil.

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HISTORY OF CLOVE

• Cloves were used in China as early as 266 BC, and
  by the 4th century, they were known in Europe,
  although very expensive.
• Same as with nutmeg, the Dutch also destroyed all
  trees from surrounding native islands to secure a
  monopoly, and cultivated them only in a small
  group of islands.
• In 1770, the French managed to introduce clove
  trees to Mauritius, and started cultivating them
  there, as well as in Zanzibar, Penang and
  Sumatra.

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COLLECTION PREPARATION

• The flower buds are collected when the lower part
  turns green-crimson. The cloves are dried in the
  open air on mats separated from their peduncles
  (forming clove stalks which are also sold
  commercially).
• If left on the tree for too long, the buds open
  the petals fall, leaving brown cloves. Later
  the fruits (mother cloves) are produced.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Cloves are 10-17.5 mm long.
• The head consists of 4 slightly projecting calyx
  teeth, 4 membranous petals and numerous incurved
  stamens around a large style.
• Odour Spicy Pungent
• Taste Aromatic

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Heavy cuticularized epidermis
• Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
• Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals prisms)
• Stomata (epidermis of sepals)
• Starch (Fruit mother cloves)
• Lignified sclereids

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CONSTITUENTS

• 14-21 Volatile oils
• Mainly eugenol isoeugenol
• Sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol
• Tannins
• Triterpene acids esters
• Glycosides

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USES OF CLOVE

• Stimulant aromatic
• Spice
• For the preparation of volatile oil
• Sesquiterpenes potential anti-carcinogenic
  compounds

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CLOVE OIL

• Oil distilled in Europe and the US normally does
  not need purification, while oil distilled in
  other areas (e.g. Madagascar) does. After
  purification the oil is sold with varying eugenol
  contents.
• Oil of cloves is yellow or colourless, is
  slightly heavier than water.

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CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS

• Volatile oils mainly eugenol acetyleugenol
• Sesquiterpenes (a and ß caryophyllenes)
• Oil of clove like other volatile/essential oils
  should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight
  container, should be protected from light
  heat.

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CLOVE OIL - USES

• Anti-septic
• Aromatic
• Stimulant
• Flavouring Agent

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EUCALYPTUS LEAF

• DEFINTION Eucalyptus leaf consists of the whole
  or cut dried leaves of the older branches of
  Eucalyptus globulus, (Myrtaceae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Portugal, SA, Spain, China, Brazil, Australia,
  India Paraguay.

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Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION

• MACROSCOPICAL
• Older dried leaves are grey-brown have lateral
  veins. Secretory oil cells are visible in leaves
  held to the light.
• MICROSCOPIC
• Epidermal cells have a thick cuticle.
• Anisocytic stomata
• Mesophyll has schizogenous oil glands
• Calcium oxalate crystals Prisms Cluster
  crystals

111
Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS

• Volatile Oil (at least 2 )
• sesquiterpene - Anti-bacterial action against
  oral pathogens.

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EUCALYPTUS OIL

• Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh
  leaves of various species of Eucalyptus and
  rectified. They are produced in the same
  countries which produce the dry herb.
• Only a certain amount of species produce oil
  suitable for medicinal use the main criteria is
  a high cineole content and low amounts of
  phellandrene and aldehydes.
• Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea,
  E. smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.

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CHARACTERISTICS CONSTITUENTS

• CHARACTERISTICS
• Colourless or pale yellow liquid
• Aromatic camphoraceous in odour.
• Pungent camphoraceous in taste, which is
  followed by a sensation of cold.
• CONSTITUENTS
• At least 70 volatile oils (mainly cineole).

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EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES

• Alleviating the symptoms of nasopharyngeal
  infections
• Treating coughs
• Decongestant.
• Official preparations
• Mixtures, inhalations, lozenges and pastilles
  also applied externally as ointments and
  liniments.

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FENNEL

• DEFINITION Fennel consists of the dried ripe
  fruits of Foeniculum vulgare (Umbelliferae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Europe, India, China Egypt. Mediterranean
  origin.

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ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

• 1-4 Volatile oil
• trans-anethole
• Antethole
• Estragole
• Fenchone
• Flavonoids
• Coumarins
• Glycosides

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ACTIONS USES

• ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Expectorant
• Aromatic
• - All due to anethole (and fenchone)
• USES
• Flatulence
• Dyspepsia
• Chronic coughs catarrh

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Foeniculum vulgare
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Foeniculum vulgare USES

• Culinary purposes
• Used in medicine as a flavouring
• Carminative

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CARAWAY CARAWAY OIL

• DEFINITION Caraway consists of the dried, ripe
  fruits of Caram carvi (Umbelliferae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Wild Cultivated in Central Northern Europe,
  Holland, Denmark, Germany, Russia, Finland,
  Poland, Hungary, Britain, Egypt, Morocco,
  Australia China

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• A biennial herb growing up to 1 m in height.
• Herb Normally consists of mericarps separated
  from the pedicels. Fruits are slightly curved,
  brown glabrous.
• Size 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm wide
• Often the stigma style are still attached.
• Characteristic aromatic odour taste

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Pitted sclerenchyma
• secretory canals
• Dark, red-brown cells containing a pale yellow or
  colourless oleoresin
• Thick cellulose walls
• Calcium oxalate crystals

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ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

• 1-7 Volatile oils
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Carveole
• 8-20 Fixed oils
• Proteins
• Calcium oxalates
• Colouring matter
• Resin

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CORIANDER CORIANDER OIL

• DEFINITION Coriander is the dried, nearly ripe
  fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Umbelliferae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Indigenous to Italy. Also cultivated in
  Holland, Central Eastern Europe, Mediterranean
  (Morocco, Malta Egypt), China, India
  Bagladesh.

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Annual herb growing 0.7 m in height with white or
  pink flowers.
• Drug Normally consists of whole cremocarps
  straw yellow 2-4 mm in diameter when ripe.
• Considerable variation occurs (e.g. Indian
  variety gt oval).
• Apex has 2 styles.
• Fruits have an aromatic odour spicy taste.
• Unripe plant unpleasant mousy odour ? same
  odour oil has when made from unripe fruit.

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MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• Outer pericarp stomata calcium oxalte prisms.
• Thick sclerenchyma
• Testa brown flattened cells
• Endosperm is curved consists of parenchymous
  cells containing fixed oils.

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ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

• 1.8 Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols esters
• Flavonoids
• Coumarins
• Phenolic acids
• High fat content (16-28)
• Protein (11-17)

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Coriandrum sativum - USES

• Domestic purposes (cooking - curries)
• Pharmaceutically flavouring agent Carminative

129
PEPPERMINT PEPPERMINT OIL

• DEFINITION Peppermint is the dried leaves of
  Mentha piperita (Labiate). It should contain at
  least 1.2 volatile oil.
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Europe America

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

• All mints have a square stem creeping rhizome.
• Black mint, which is the most commonly
  cultivated variety in England, has purple stems
  and dark green petiolate leaves tinged with
  purple. Leaf blades are 3-9 cm long with a
  grooved petiolate up to 1 cm long.
• Pinnate venation.
• Glandular trichomes bright yellow points (hand
  lens)
• Small purple flowers appear in late summer.

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MICROSCOPIC FEATURES

• Diacytic stomata
• Multicellular clothing trichomes
• 2 types of glandular trichomes (one with a
  unicellar head with a multicellular head).
• Calcium oxalate is absent.

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Oleum Menthae

• Oil of peppermint is obtained from Mentha
  piperita via steam distillation using the
  flowering tops.
• Oil should contain at least 44 menthol, 15-32
  menthone and 4.5-10 menthyl acetate.

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Oleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS

• Menthol
• Menthone isomenthone
• Menthyl acetate
• Limonene
• Cineole
• Menthofuran
• Pulegone
• Cineole
• OIL COMPOSITION greatly
• influenced by genetic
• factors seasonal variation.

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PEPPERMINT PEPPERMINT OIL USES

• OIL anti-bacterial, cooling, carminative
• HERB Carminative

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LESSON TAKE-AWAY

• Definitions of Volatile Oils
• Methods of Production of Volatile Oils
• Herbs containing Volatile Oils