Observational%20Learning

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Chapter 9

• Observational Learning

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Of Octopuses and Crabs

• Octopus
• Crab
• Put crab in jar
• Octopus opens jar
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vocWF6d0nelY

Uh-oh!
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Results
Time to open jar
Trials
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Observation

• Second octopus watches training of first octopus

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Observational Learning

• Also called Vicarious Learning
• A change in behaviour due to the experience of
  observing a model

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Early Work on Observational Learning

• Anecdotal evidence
• Thorndike
• Puzzle box
• Experienced model, naïve learner
• Animals dont learn by observation
• Successes and failures

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Imitative Behaviour

• Not necessarily the same as observational
  learning
• Do same thing as a model
• May indicate a lack of learning about a situation
• E.g., doing a behaviour that leads to an aversive
  outcome

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Human Infants Imitation

• At what age can humans imitate/learn vicariously?
• Metzolff Moore (1977)
• 12 to 21 day old infants
• Facial gestures tongue protrusion, mouth open,
  lip protrusion

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Experiment

• Experimenter 90 sec passive face (baseline)
• Infant shown gesture four times
• Imitation-test period
• Video taped and scored by blind judges
• Supports imitation

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Results
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of mouth open response
of tongue-out response
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5
baseline tongue-out mouth open
baseline tongue-out mouth open
Experimenters Gesture
Experimenters Gesture
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Infant Research

• Replication difficult
• Tongue protrusion elicited by other means
• Infants attention general arousal?
• Evolutionary advantage
• Observing and copying behaviour of parents,
  siblings, etc. may bring more attention

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What can you Learn with Observational Learning?

• Classical conditioning no
• Operant conditioningyes
• Observe models outcome (appetitive or aversive)

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Epstein (1984)

• Model bird (MB)
• Experienced
• Observer bird (OB)
• Naïve
• Experiment
• Model trained to use object for food
• Ball (B), switch (S), key (K) five phases

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Five Phases

• 1. OB right B, S, K in left
• 2. OB right B, S, K in right
• 3. MB in left, OB in right B, S, K in left
• 4. As above, but B, S, K in right
• 5. OB right B, S, K in right

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Results

• Phase 4 observer imitates model
• Phase 5 observer uses objects without model to
  guide actions
• Learning due to observation of a model and
  expectation of reinforcement (motivation latent
  learning)
• Not due to observers prior experience or direct
  reinforcement

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Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz Wolkin (1974)

• Children observed model look at paired pictures,
  indicating preferences
• Model received approval, disapproval, or neutral
  consequences
• Observers subsequent preferences were for the
  pictures that the models received approval for
  selecting

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Generalized Imitation

• Dont see the outcome of the models behaviour,
  but the observer imitates anyway
• Prior experience with observational learning
• We learn that imitating others behaviour may
  provide reinforcement
• We generalize from one condition to another

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Generalized Imitation

• Also an issue of discrimination as applied to
• Discriminative stimulus
• Who to imitate
• Response
• When to imitate
• Outcome
• What to expect

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Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory

• Observational learning as a subset of operant
  conditioning
• Observers behaviour changes due to consequences
  of observers behaviour, not the models

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Process

• Three steps
• 1. Learner observes behaviour of model
• 2. Learner copies response
• 3. Learner receives reinforcement --gt continue
  imitating
• Model rat knows maze observer allowed to follow
• Group 1 both model observer reinforced at end
  observer will run maze on own
• Group 2 only model reinforced at end observer
  will not run maze (latent learning)

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Interesting Issues

• When to delay before imitating
• Learning and telling a joke
• Limited time offer (e.g., trick-or-treating)
• Lack of reinforcement
• May not actually observe models outcome
• Models outcome may be on PRE
• Imitation may not lead to immediately appetitive
  outcome
• Generalized imitation

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Banduras Studies

• Bobo the Clown experiments
• Children as observers
• Watched various models demonstrating behaviours
• Consequences of models behaviour
• Availability of reward/punishment

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

• Attentional processes
• Retentional processes
• Motor reproductive processes
• Incentive and motivational processes

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Characteristics of the Model

• Rewardingness
• Authority
• Dominance
• Similarity
• Sincerity

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Characteristics of the Learner

• Uncertainty
• Sex
• Age

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Characteristics of the Situation

• Task uncertainty
• Task difficulty
• Presentation of model

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Comparison

• Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory
• Behavioural operant conditioning
• Past experiences
• Banduras Social Learning Theory
• Innate processes, learning, and cognition
• Future expectations

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Television Violence

• National Television Violence Study (1998)
• 8000 hours of programming
• 7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years
• 60 of programs contained violence
• Less than 4 contained anti-violence message
• By age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders
  and over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV

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TV Violence Aggression

• Strong correlation
• Adapted from Bushman Anderson (2000)

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Issues for Studies

• Correlational findings
• Do not imply causation
• Third factor?
• Longitudinal studies
• Follow subjects over time
• Experimental studies
• Control and experimental groups
• Contrived?
• Brief time period

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Phobias

• Development
• Vicarious acquisition
• Prevalence in humans?
• Treatment
• Flooding
• Systematic desensitization

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Observational Learning Treatments

• Modeling
• Used with the very young
• Sometimes more rapid
• May be better at generalization
• Three types of phobia reduction modeling
• 1. Graduated modeling
• 2. Participant modeling
• 3. Symbolic modeling

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Modeling in Behaviour Therapy

• A model can influence an observer
• Facilitate known response
• Teach new behaviours
• Reduce/eliminate undesirable behaviours

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Mirror Neurons

• Scattered throughout premotor cortex, centres for
  language, empathy, pain
• Fire when certain actions are preformed by or
  observed in someone else
• Mental imitation of witnessed (or heard) actions

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Discovery

• Giacomo Rizzolatti, Vitorio Gallese, Leonardo
  Fogassi
• Raisin incident
• Macaque monkey with electrodes in premotor cortex
• Published in 1996

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Locations in Humans

• More mirror neurons in more places than in
  monkeys
• Premotor cortex (movement)
• Inferior parietal areas (perception)
• Posterior parietal lobe, superior temporal
  sulcus, insula (comprehend anothers feelings,
  understand intention, and use language)

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Role

• Learning through observation
• Understanding meaning or intention of action
• E.g., become better at golf by watching golf
• Not limited to motor responses

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Gallese, Rizolatti, et al. (2005)

• Subjects listened to sentences describing actions
• Same mirror neurons fired as would have if
  subjects had done the action or seen the action
  performed
• Mirror neurons responded to abstract
  representation (i.e., language)