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Title: Emerging Issues


1
Emerging Issues Challenges around ADA
Employment Provisions Implications for
Rehabilitation Education and Practice
  • NCRE Annual Conference
  • San Antonio, TX
  • 21 February, 2009

2
  • Presenters
  • Wendy Wilkinson
  • DBTAC Southwest ADA Center
  • Larry Featherston
  • Susanne Bruyère
  • Hannah Rudstam
  • DBTAC-Northeast, Cornell University, Employment
    and Disability Institute

3
  • Wendy Wilkinson
  • DBTAC Southwest ADA Center

4
Discrimination and Disability
  • Glass ceiling issues and employment of persons
    with disabilities
  • Legislation
  • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
  • Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments of
    2008
  • Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008

5
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Historical
  • Decades of segregation, unemployment and
    stigmatization are factors. Many people with
    disabilities have internalized their relegation
    to second class citizenship to the extent that
    they have become so demoralized and
    disenfranchised that they do not pursue
    educational opportunities, involve themselves in
    social, political and other activities which
    would enhance their position in society and lead
    to expanded employment opportunities.
  • Perception that people with disabilities cannot
    truly compete in the workplace unless they can be
    cured or rehabilitated remains. Programs were
    developed to rehabilitate persons with
    disabilities so they could become economically
    productive and contribute to society in a way
    that was recognized and respected. The focus was
    placed completely on the individual, and the
    impact of traditional workplace structures and
    policies on the individuals abilities to perform
    in a job were not addressed.
  • External factors exogenous to the workplace
    which include limited access to health care,
    educational opportunities, adequate housing and
    transportation.
  • Health Care Access to health care is critical to
    employment status of persons with disabilities.
    Individuals with disabilities in the workplace
    may choose to remain in jobs which offer little
    upward mobility in order to retain access to
    health insurance.

6
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Self-identification
  • Many individuals, including both those who do not
    know about the ADA and those who are aware of its
    existence, may not consider themselves to be
    individuals with disabilities. Many individuals
    who are deaf do not label themselves as
    individuals with disabilities, they consider
    themselves to be a part of a culture, linked
    together by a common language.
    Self-identification as belonging to a class is
    one key to breaking down employment barriers. The
    next step is educational, for people with
    disabilities to achieve social equity they must
    first empower their own members and then persuade
    others (Karst)
  • The individuals that do identify themselves as
    people with disabilities are not all politically
    active, empowered members of a class whom are
    aware of the ADAs existence. Of those who are
    aware of its existence, few understand its
    mandate and possess the resources necessary to
    use it effectively. Perhaps this can be
    attributed, in part, to the nature of the
    legislative mandates people with disabilities are
    most familiar with. The programs most people
    with disabilities have traditionally had access
    to--are entitlement in nature, design and
    perception. These have imbued many individuals
    with disabilities with a sense of powerlessness
    over their destiny.
  • Workplace Culture Tremendous barriers in the
    workplace remain because of traditional workplace
    culture and norms. Barriers are created by,
    routine personnel actions, policies, and
    procedures (Compton). Job descriptions often
    dictate the means which should be used to
    accomplish a particular job task instead of
    describing the end result desired. Many unions
    view nondiscrimination laws as a threat to their
    core, guiding principles --job security and
    seniority.

7
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Workplace pressure
  • Anecdotal evidence suggests that workplace
    pressure to conform makes individuals reluctant
    to request accommodations for fear of being
    singled out and appearing to demand special
    consideration (SWDBTAC). Co-workers and
    supervisory personnel may perceive the provision
    of an accommodation to be special treatment,
    instead of being understood as a necessary
    adjustment to promote equal opportunity.
  • Many people with disabilities, may be afraid to
    request accommodations because of a fear of
    having to disclose the existence of a disability.
  • Others may be unaware of the law and their right
    to request accommodation. So, there may be
    significant numbers of people with disabilities
    in the workplace still trying to work within
    accepted norms which dont allow them to be as
    effective as they could be with an appropriate
    accommodation. Their performance as well as
    their opportunities for advancement may be
    significantly affected. apparently neutral job
    requirements which are, in effect, discriminatory
    because they screen out great numbers of
    otherwise qualified individuals.
  • Socialization Studies have shown the
    socialization of men and women effects the status
    of women in the workforce (Taub). Many persons
    with disabilities have traveled a distinctly
    different route to the workplace than others.
    Some groups of individuals with disabilities who
    have discontinuity in their work lives may be
    tremendously impacted, as women have been, in
    pursuing employment opportunities which offer the
    greatest returns. Discontinuous workforce
    participation has been shown to have a chilling
    effect on womens progression in the workforce
    (Polachek).

8
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Perceptions
  • Attitudinal studies reveal that people with
    different types of disabilities are subjected to
    different kinds of discrimination (Fuqua.).
  • Persons with disabilities encounter different
    types and degrees of discrimination in the
    workplace relative to the type of impairment they
    have (Compton). One study indicated that
    employers expressed considerably more doubt about
    the productivity of people with learning
    disabilities than they did of individuals with
    other types of disabilities (Gerber). Another
    study revealed that individuals with visible,
    physical impairments are viewed more favorably
    than those with mental or sensory impairments
    (Fuqua) There is a hierarchy of acceptance
    dependent on the particular type of disability.
    Individuals with hidden, unfamiliar or more
    stigmatized disabilities face greater barriers
    in the workplace and in society. The
    unemployment rate among people with psychiatric
    disabilities is estimated to be 85 which is
    significantly higher than the rate for
    individuals with physical disabilities (Mancuso).
    Studies of negative attitudes toward different
    impairment groups consistently find mental
    impairments eliciting the strongest prejudice
    (Baldwin)
  • Within the disability community itself there is a
    stratification among individuals with different
    types of disabilities. Individuals with a
    certain type of impairment may make
    stereotypical assumptions concerning other types
    of impairments. Persons with disabilities are
    not immune from the influences that cause others
    to make judgments about others with certain types
    of disabilities unfamiliar to them. People
    understand and accept those who are most like
    them. (Henderson)

9
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Disability Nondiscrimination legislation
  • Since the passage of the ADA courts and employers
    struggled with reconciling the competing values
    the ADA, as drafted embodies--the struggle among
    different conceptions of disability, a civil
    rights mandate balanced with cost considerations,
    misperceptions regarding the mandate of the ADA
    (affirmative action vs. nondiscrimination).
  • In Southwestern Community College v. Davis, the
    Supreme Court referred to reasonable
    accommodation at one point as an affirmative
    action requirement and later addressed it as a
    nondiscrimination mandate. In Alexander v.
    Choate, the Court clarified its analysis of
    reasonable accommodation, noting the criticism
    its earlier interpretation engendered, and found
    that it was a nondiscrimination mandate.
  • Employers and individuals with disabilities
    perception of the governments commitment to
    enforcement is an important factor in assessing
    workplace barriers.
  • Can an employee with a disability be assured of
    accessing the protection of the law?
  • Do employers perceive the law as one that is
    actively enforced?
  • Does it appear that the government, through the
    ADA, is completely committed to ending workplace
    discrimination against people with disabilities?
  • Legislation cannot address all the behaviors
    which manifest themselves in the workplace as
    intolerance to difference. Numerous events can
    occur in the workplace which may not constitute
    actionable discrimination but which impact an
    individuals job performance. The discomfort of
    co-workers or customers due to misperceptions of
    an individual with a disability may significantly
    impede their chances of progressing in the
    workplace.

10
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Disability Nondiscrimination legislation
  • It is impossible to draw a clear line around
    persons with disabilities protected by the
    law--how does one demonstrate the existence of
    systemic discriminatory practices without
    determining whether the group passed over for
    jobs had disabilities.
  • The ADA is limited in its ability to address
    institutionalized, systemic discriminatory
    practices in a comprehensive manner because it is
    restricted in its ability to address the full
    range of activities that impact employment
    discrimination. The ADA was drafted to address
    discrimination at a micro level, its statutory
    language is crafted to redressing individualized
    discrimination.
  • To date, enforcement efforts have been focused on
    providing individual redress. Early Title VII
    enforcement efforts were targeted as well to
    addressing allegations of individualized
    discrimination. Soon after its enactment, this
    enforcement strategy was challenged because it
    wasnt addressing widespread, systematic
    employment discrimination (Graham). In response,
    the EEOC developed the theory of disparate impact
    to address employment discrimination against a
    class. Strategies were developed utilizing
    statistical data to profile race disparities in
    the workplace. The difficulty of gathering data
    on people with disabilities in the workplace
    makes it impossible to use a traditional,
    statistical approach in applying the disparate
    impact theory in the context of disability
    discrimination.

11
Glass Ceiling Issues in Employment Barriers
  • Employment Support Programs
  • Title VII programs provide the greatest
    assistance in attaining employment. The Act does
    not provide specific guidance as to precisely
    what benefits must be provided, nor does it
    define the ultimate employment goal. The
    statutory language of the Act appears to mandate
    the provision of some services, while the
    regulations seem to allow conditional provision
    of services. It is unclear how much discretion
    a state agency has over provision of necessary
    rehabilitation services. There is also a lack of
    clarity regarding the ultimate employment goal,
    which has resulted in some litigation. At issue
    has been the appropriate vocational goal level
    which the program must support. Should it be the
    achievement of the highest vocational goals . . .
    or merely suitable employment
  • For the most part the programs developed by the
    Social Security Administration or through Title
    VII of the Rehabilitation Act do not follow the
    individual into the workplace. Once the
    employment goal has been attained, the
    individuals case will be closed or they will be
    deemed ineligible. Some programs have been
    developed to allow for transitioning into
    employment, but for the most part, ones entree
    into the workforce triggers a cut-off or
    phase-out of any assistance for
    disability-related expenses or health care.

12
Research Gaps
  • In Culture and Disability, Karen Hirsch makes
    note of the lack of historical scholarship on
    disability in comparison to the number of studies
    on the history of African -Americans and women
    which impacted the civil movements for these
    groups. The lack of references and scholarship
    on disability in history further negates its
    importance to other groups--if it hasnt been
    documented how can its existence be recognized.
    This recognition is extremely important given the
    studies that suggest that people with
    disabilities encounter more workplace
    discrimination than any other group (Johnson).
  • Documentation of the costs of discrimination
  • Income replacement and disability benefit
    programs
  • Expand societal notions of cost and redefine how
    we quantify and assess the costs of
    discrimination versus compliance. Any assessment
    of the costs associated with ADA implementation
    should be compared against the societal cost of
    discrimination. Some of these costs are directly
    employment related--discrimination diminishes the
    labor pool which can result in wage inflation,
    thus increasing the costs of goods and services.
    In addition, the costs to employers of having
    access to an arguably noncompetitive labor pool
    because it does not include all potentially
    qualified applicants should be included.
  • Impact of awareness of civil rights and access to
    benefits and privileges of society on employment.

13
Legislation
  • Discrimination is defined as Unfair treatment of
    a person or a group based on prejudice
  • Challengetargeting discrimination based on
    disability
  • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
  • As passed
  • As implemented and interpreted
  • Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments of
    2008
  • As passed
  • As implemented and interpreted?

14
ADA ADAAA
  • Under the ADA of 1990 many cases were dismissed
    before trial because plaintiffs could not meet
    the high standard of proving that they had a
    disability. The ADAAA makes this outcome much
    less likely. 
  • The ADAAA of 2008 makes important changes to the
    ADA to restore the intent and protections of the
    Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The
    amendments
  • reject the holdings in several Supreme Court
    decisions that severely narrowed the definition
    of disability
  • direct the EEOC to change the language in the
    regulations in several key sections to ensure
    that a broad range of individuals discriminated
    against on the basis of disability will be
    protected by the Act.

15
What did Congress Do?
  • Congressional Intent is Clear
  • In order to understand the true import and power
    of the ADA Amendments Act one must review the
    statute and its Findings and Purposes to
    determine what the ADAAA means and what Congress
    is directing the EEOC to do.
  • Rules of construction are what courts use to
    interpret statutes. Normally Findings and
    Purposes are not considered as having the same
    weight as statutory language, but the statutory
    language in the ADAAA refers back to the
    Findings and Purposes and it makes it clear
    that Congress intended the courts to look at this
    as statutory language.
  • The Findings and Purposes language of the ADAAA
    is very specific and clearly describes the remedy
    Congress is seeking. It directs the EEOC to
    remedy certain cases that Congress believes were
    decided contrary to the intent of the ADA as it
    was passed in 1990.
  • The EEOC is directed to address the definition of
    disability.

16
 12101. Findings and purpose
  • A new finding was added and an original one
    deleted
  • New
  • The Congress finds that
  • (1) (1) physical or mental disabilities in no
    way diminish a persons right to fully
    participate in all aspects of society, yet many
    people with physical or mental disabilities have
    been precluded from doing so because of
    discrimination others who have a record of a
    disability or are regarded as having a disability
    also have been subjected to discrimination
  • Why?
  • The finding that 43 million people in the United
    States have disabilities was deleted is because
    the Supreme Court in both Sutton and Toyota used
    this as rationale for applying a rigid standard
    for narrowing the definition of disability
  • had Congress intended to include all persons
    with corrected physical limitations among those
    covered by the Act, it undoubtedly would have
    cited a much higher number than 43 million
    disabled persons in the findings

17
Finding No. 8
  • Is important because the EEOC defined
    substantially limited as significantly restricted
    and that was inconsistent with what Congress had
    intended. It imposed too high a standard and
    excluded many persons with disabilities the Act
    was supposed to protect.
  • Congress finds that the current Equal Employment
    Opportunity Commission ADA regulations defining
    the term substantially limits as significantly
    restricted are inconsistent with congressional
    intent, by expressing too high a standard.

18
Supreme Court Cases Rejected
  • The Supreme Court has decided twenty ADA cases,
    five of these cases centered on the definition of
    disability. Four of these cases significantly
    narrowed the definition of disability
  • Sutton v. United Airlines, 527 U.S. 471
    (1999).Murphy v. United Parcel Service, 527 U.S.
    516(1999).Albertson's, Inc. v. Kirkingburg, 527
    U.S. 555 (1999).
  • Toyota Motor Mfg., Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams,
    534 U.S. 184 (2002).
  • Congress rejected the holdings in these cases
  • Sutton trilogy Disability must be evaluated
    by factoring in impact of mitigating measures.
  • There is a small compromise in the amendments
    regarding mitigating measures
  • The ameliorative effects of the mitigating
    measures of ordinary eyeglasses or contact lenses
    shall be considered in determining whether an
    impairment substantially limits a major life
    activity.
  • However these individuals would be protected if
    they are regarded as having an impairment
  • Toyota- Activities limited must be of central
    importance to a persons daily existence.

19
Reasoning in Supreme Court CaseAirline Reinstated
  • School Board of Nassau County v. Arline, 480 U.S.
    273 (1987) set forth a broad view of the third
    prong of the definition of disability under the
    Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Purposes at 3)
  • In Airline the plaintiff, a school teacher, had
    been hospitalized for tuberculosis and was in
    remission for 20 years when she had three
    relapses over a period of two years while she was
    working. After the last two, she was suspended
    with pay until the end of the school year at
    which point she was terminated. She brought suit
    under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of
    1973. The court found that she had a disability
    under the record of prong of disability because
    her hospitalization for a disease which affected
    her respiratory system. Pp. 480 U. S. 280-281.
    The Courts ruling was broad so it would cover
    anyone who had an actual, record of or a
    perceived impairmenteven if they did not have
    any impairment at all. (http//supreme.justia.com/
    us/480/273/case.html)
  • In its rationale, the Court noted that Congress
    expansion of the definition of disability in
    504 reflected Congress concern that persons with
    disabilities should be protected from
    discrimination stemming not only from simple
    prejudice, but also from archaic attitudes and
    laws and from the fact that the American people
    are simply unfamiliar with and insensitive to the
    difficulties confronting individuals with
    disabilities. The expanded definition included
    discrimination against persons with a record of
    or who are regarded as having an impairment, but
    may not have one at all.

20
ADAAA More Traditional Civil Rights Law
  • The amendments conform the ADAAA with the
    structure of Title VII and other civil rights
    laws
  • Require an individual to demonstrate
    discrimination on the
  • basis of disability rather than discrimination
    against a qualified individual with a disability
    because of the disability of such individual.
  • Focus is now on whether a qualified individual
    has been discriminated against on the basis of
    his or her disability, rather than on whether the
    individual is a person with a disability.

21
Major Life Activities Listed and Enhanced
  • Major life activities were not defined in the ADA
    statute of 1990, but were defined in the
    regulations implementing the law. The ADAAA
    provides a list of major life activities.
  • The ADA regulations promulgated by the EEOC in
    1991 defined major life activities to include
    functions such as caring for oneself, performing
    manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking,
    breathing, learning, and working. The ADAAA also
    lists these and adds eating, sleeping,
    standing, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing,
    reading, concentrating, thinking, and
    communicating.
  • The ADAAA also lists major bodily functions that
    should be considered major life activities
  • Major life activities also includes the
    operation of a major bodily function, including
    but not limited to, functions of the immune
    system, normal cell growth, digestive, bowel,
    bladder, neurological, brain, respiratory,
    circulatory, endocrine, and reproductive
    functions.

22
ADAAA Addresses Impairments
  • The ADAAA added additional language stating that
  • (C) An impairment that substantially limits one
    major life activity need not limit other major
    life activities in order to be considered a
    disability.
  • (D) An impairment that is episodic or in
    remission is a disability if it would
    substantially limit a major life activity when
    active.

23
New Section on Qualification Standards Related to
Vision Added
  • (c) Qualification Standards and Tests Related
    to Uncorrected Vision- Notwithstanding section
    3(4)(E)(ii), a covered entity shall not use
    qualification standards, employment tests, or
    other selection criteria based on an individuals
    uncorrected vision unless the standard, test, or
    other selection criteria, as used by the covered
    entity, is shown to be job-related for the
    position in question and consistent with business
    necessity.

24
What Could Change?
  • EEOC could change list of impairments.
  • Significant restriction will be changed.
  • It will have great impact on definition of
    disability issues, including revision of the
    definition of a work disability under the first
    and third prongs
  • individuals who alleged that they had a
    disability which substantially limited their
    ability to work encountered a tremendous
    evidentiary burden by having to establish that
    they were significantly restricted in their
    ability to perform a class or broad range of
    jobs. It was a surprisingly strict regulatory
    requirement which made it exceedingly difficult
    for a plaintiff who had been subjected to an
    adverse employment action because of a work
    disability to establish the full range of jobs in
    which their performance would be restricted.
    This hurdle was especially difficult in cases
    where an individual was alleging that the
    employer regarded them as having a work
    disability as they must not only prove up the
    range of jobs they were excluded from, but also
    that the employer believed that there was a full
    range of jobs that this person was restricted
    from performing. The courts have taken this
    language and applied it very restrictively. Many
    individuals had difficulty proving that their
    employer perceived them as unable to perform a
    full range of jobs.
  • The new regarded as language appears to target
    this issue as it states a person should just have
    to prove that they were discriminated against
    because of an impairment and not have to address
    whether that perception also included a specific
    major life activity.

25
What impact will the ADAAA have on the
workplace?
  • Increased number of individuals in the workplace
    who are protected by the federal law.
  • Range of coverage and protections afforded under
    the amended ADA will expand significantly.
  • The ADAAAs broad coverage and protections remove
    the focus from a disability inquiry and place
    it squarely on the interactive process.
  • Employers should review their policies and
    practices governing the ADAs interactive process
    and focus on their reasonable accommodations
    procedures.
  • Upon request for a reasonable accommodation
    employers should engage in an interactive process
    with employees or applicants regardless of
    whether medication, aids, or other mitigating
    measures may be available to them.
  • If an employee or applicant demonstrates a
    physical or mental impairment that would limit
    his or her ability to request an accommodation,
    initiate an informal interactive process to
    accommodate them

26
Genetic Discrimination
  • The ADA of 1990 has not been widely used to
    challenge genetic discrimination. Although the
    statutory language of the ADA does not reference
    genetic traits, there was a discussion of the
    issue during the congressional debates.
  • The ADA has been interpreted by the EEOC as
    including genetic discrimination under the
    thirdregarded as prong of the definition of
    disability.
  • (EEOC Guidance (http//www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/90
    2cm.html)
  • Regarded as applies to individuals who are
    subjected to discrimination on the basis of
    genetic information relating to illness, disease,
    or other disorders. Covered entities that
    discriminate against individuals on the basis of
    such genetic information are regarding the
    individuals as having impairments that
    substantially limit a major life
    activityExample -- CP's genetic profile
    reveals an increased susceptibility to colon
    cancer. CP is currently asymptomatic and may
    never in fact develop colon cancer. After making
    CP a conditional offer of employment, R learns
    about CP's increased susceptibility to colon
    cancer. R then withdraws the job offer because
    of concerns about matters such as CP's
    productivity, insurance costs, and attendance. R
    is treating CP as having impairment that
    substantially limits a major life activity.
    Accordingly, CP is covered by the third part of
    the definition of "disability.

27
Genetic Discrimination
  • The ADA of 1990s application to genetic
    discrimination became more limited after the
    Sutton trilogy of cases. Still, the EEOC did not
    withdraw the guidance. However, even if the ADA
    of 1990 could be found to apply to individuals
    with symptomatic genetic conditions it may not
    protect workers from requirements or requests
    to provide genetic information to their
    employers..... In addition, once the applicant is
    hired, the employer may request that the employee
    take a medical exam, such as a genetic test,
  • if the employer can demonstrate that the
    information from that test is job related and
    consistent with business necessity.
  • The ADAAA, because of the rejection of the Sutton
    trilogy and the directive by Congress to apply a
    broader definition of disability, can be used to
    challenge genetic discrimination that is
    asymptomatic under the regarded as prong.

28
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008
(GINA)
  • On May 21, 2008, GINA was enacted.
  • It prohibits U.S. insurance companies and
    employers from discriminating on the basis of
    information derived from genetic tests. GINA is
    divided into two main parts
  • Title I, prohibits discrimination based on
    genetic information by health insurers and
  • Title II prohibits discrimination in employment
    based on genetic information.

29
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008
(GINA)
  • Title I of GINA prohibits group health plans and
    health insurance issuers in the group market from
    using genetic information to adjust premium or
    contribution amounts for the group covered under
    the plan. Plans and issuers in the group market
    are still allowed to increase the premium rate
    for an employer based on the manifestation of a
    disease or disorder of an individual enrolled in
    the plan, but they are prohibited from using the
    manifested disease or disorder of one individual
    as genetic information about other group members
    to further increase the premium.
  • Title II of GINA prohibits discrimination in
    employment because of genetic information and,
    with certain exceptions, prohibits an employer
    from requesting, requiring, or purchasing genetic
    information. The law prohibits the use of genetic
    information in employment decisions including
    hiring, firing, job assignments, and promotions
    by employers, unions, employment agencies, and
    labor-management training programs.

30
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008
(GINA)
  • The parts of the law relating to health insurers
    will take effect by May 2009, and those relating
    to employers will take effect by November 2009.
  • EEOC and HHS are currently developing regulations
  • It will be tested!

31
Issues Facing Women with Disabilities in the
Workplace
  • By
  • Larry W. Featherston, A.B.D., C.R.C., C.V.E.
  • Cornell University

32
Barriers to Work for All Individuals with
Disabilities
  • Ignorance, prejudice, a reluctance to change by
    employers
  • Effects of disability need for continued
    medical treatment
  • Negative perceptions about returning to work
  • Lack of confidence and motivation
  • Job availability
  • Lack of Transportation

(Bruyère et al., 2006 Feist-Price Khanna,
2003 Roessler, Williams, Featherston
Featherston, 2006 )
33
Double handicap additional barriers for women
  • Deegan and Brooks (1985), Feist-Price and Khanna
    (2003), and Schur (2003)
  • Gender bias / Sexism
  • Oppressive actions by society

34
Wage Discrimination
  • Women with disabilities must be afforded the
    same rights and opportunities as all other
    persons, irrespective of disability status and
    sex, with regard to employment. (p.12)

Feist-Price, S., Khanna, N. (2003). Employment
inequality for women with disabilities. Off Our
Backs, 33(1/2), 10-12.
35
Most recent evidence of wage discrimination
  • Dey Hill, 2007
  • Women employed full-time, one year out of college
    are earning 80 of the earnings for men
  • Women employed full-time, ten years out of
    college are earning 69 of the earnings for men
  • The gender pay gap has become a fixture of the
    U.S. workplace and is so ubiquitous that many
    simply view it as normal. (p. 2)

36
Why is this Significant?
  • If working women earned the same as men (those
    who work the same number of hours have the same
    education, age, and union status and live in the
    same region of the country), their annual family
    incomes would rise by 4,000 and poverty rates
    would be cut in half. (p. 2)
  • National Womens Law Center. (2006). The Paycheck
    Check Fairness Act Helping to close the wage gap
    for women.

37
Evidence of Wage Discrimination using the RSA-911
data
  • Looked at
  • Individuals with disabilities who received
    services through RSA and received a competitive
    employment closure status in 2003, 2004, 2005 and
    2006
  • Individuals who reported working 30-50 a week
  • Individual had no missing data

38
Matched Men and Women with Disabilities on 16
Variables
Note The 2005 and 2006 RSA databases did not
report age.
39
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Any Disabilities for Fiscal Years 2003,
2004, 2005, and 2006
40
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Single or Multiple Disabilities for Fiscal
Years 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006
41
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Any Disabilities by Ethnicity for Fiscal
Years 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006
42
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Any Disabilities, and Men and Women in the
United States for Fiscal Years 2003, 2004, 2005,
and 2006

Note Comparison earnings data was adapted from
the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics 2003 2006 Current Population Survey.
Median usual weekly earnings of full-time and
salary workers age 16 and older. data.
http//www.bls.gov/cps/earnings.htmdemographics
43
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Any Disabilities, and Men and Women in the
United States for Fiscal Years 2003, 2004, 2005,
and 2006

Note Comparison earnings data was adapted from
the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics 2003 2006 Current Population Survey.
Median usual weekly earnings of full-time and
salary workers age 16 and older. data.
http//www.bls.gov/cps/earnings.htmdemographics
44
Median Weekly Earnings for Matched Men and Women
with Disabilities by Educational Attainment at
Closure for Fiscal Years 2003 to 2006
Note All values are in U.S. dollars. Men and
women were not matched on age for 2005 and 2006
fiscal years.
45
What Does it All Mean?
  • Women with disabilities, just like women without
    disabilities, are being discriminated against
    because they are women!

46
What do we need to address?
  • VR Service provisions
  • Disability policy

47
Disability Employment Discrimination Implications
for Rehabilitation Counseling
Susanne M. Bruyère Ph.D., CRC Disability and
Business Technical Assistance Center-Northeast Emp
loyment and Disability Institute Cornell
University smb23_at_cornell.edu
47
www.ilr.cornell.edu
48
Importance of Employment Focusfor People with
Disabilities
  • People with disabilities continue to be
    significantly un- and under-employed, compared to
    their nondisabled peers.
  • Claims of discrimination are higher, in
    comparison to other protected groups.
  • The ADAAA provides an opportunity to re-examine
    and improve workplace practices, especially in
    light of an aging workforce.

48
49
Presentation Overview
  • Employment, poverty, and household income gaps
    for people with disabilities
  • Areas (disability type/employment process) of
    disability employment discrimination
  • Implications of trends in disability employment
    discrimination for
  • Rehabilitation counselor practice
  • Rehabilitation counselor education
  • Rehabilitation research
  • Disability public policy

49
50
Continuing Employment, Poverty, and Household
Income Gaps in 2007
  • The employment rate in 2007 of Americans with
    disabilities aged 21-64 was 37, compared to 80
    of people without disabilities.
  • In 2007, an estimated 25 of Americans with a
    disability aged 21-64 lived in families with
    incomes below the poverty line, compared to an
    estimated 9 of civilian men and women without a
    disability.
  • The median annual income of households with
    working-age people with disabilities was 38,400
    in 2007, while it was 61,000 for those without
    working-age people with disabilities.

Source Calculations by W. Erickson, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the American Community Survey (ACS) 2007.
Research funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
51
Employment Gap (Ages 21-64)
Gap42.8
Source Calculations by W. Erickson, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the American Community Survey (ACS) 2007.
Research funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
51
52
Poverty Gap (Ages 21-64)
Gap15.7
Source Calculations by W. Erickson, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the American Community Survey (ACS) 2007.
Research funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
52
53
Median Annual Household Income
Gap22,600
Source Calculations by W. Erickson, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the American Community Survey (ACS) 2007.
Research funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
53
54
Continuing Claims of Employment Disability
Discrimination
  • People with disabilities are the largest group
    per 1,000 of those in protected groups filing
    claims
  • Retaliation and regarded as disabled are among
    the top five areas of alleged employment
    disability discrimination
  • Claims of discrimination between disability and
    age discrimination are beginning to interface
  • Trends have implications for rehabilitation
    counselor practice, education, and research

55
Number of Charges by Statute Per 1,000 People in
the Labor Force with Protected Class
Characteristics, 1993-2007
Source Calculations by M. Bjelland, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the EEOC IMS and CPS, 1993-2007. Research
funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
55
56
Percentage of ADA Charges by Basis (Top 5),
1994-2007
Source Calculations by M. Bjelland, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the EEOC IMS files, 1994-2007. Research
funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
56
57
Percentage of ADA Charges by Basis (Top 6-10),
1994-2007
Source Calculations by M. Bjelland, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the EEOC IMS files, 1994-2007. Research
funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
57
57
58
Percentage of ADA Charges by Issue (Top 5),
1994-2007
Source Calculations by M. Bjelland, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the EEOC IMS files, 1994-2007. Research
funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
58
59
Interplay of Workplace Disability and Aging Issues
  • Employers will be asked to make accommodations to
    retain an aging workforce
  • Visual and hearing disabilities more common
  • Upper-extremity issues due to arthritic
    conditions
  • Select health conditions (i.e., heart, diabetes)
  • Has implications for workplace accommodations,
    counselor practice and therefore counselor
    preparation and rehabilitation research

59
60
Percentage of ADA and ADEA Charges Filed by Basis
(Top Joint ADA/ADEA Bases), 1993-2007
Source Calculations by M. Bjelland, Cornell
University, Employment and Disability Institute,
using the EEOC IMS files, 1993-2007. Research
funded by the USDE-NIDRR.
61
The Aging Workforce
  • The Census Bureau projects that the 45 to 64
    year-old U.S. population will have grown by
    nearly 18.6 million (29.7) from 2000 to 2010
  • This group will account for nearly half (44) of
    the working age population (20-64) by the year
    2010
  • The prevalence of disability grows with age
    (Figure 1)
  • By 2010, the number of people with disabilities
    between the ages of 50 and 65 will almost double,
    and will be significantly larger than at any
    other age
  • From U.S. Census Bureau population projects
    http//www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/
    accessed February 6, 2009.
  • From U.S. Census Bureau population projects
    http//www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/
    accessed March 17, 2005.
  • From The Economic Consequences of Disability
    Onset Near Retirement, mimeo, Robert Weathers
    2005.

61
62
Implications-Rehabilitation Practice
  • Provide consultation services to employers to
    assist in addressing areas where discrimination
    allegedly most often occurs (i.e. discharge,
    accommodation, harassment, terms/conditions of
    employment, and hiring), how better to
    accommodation in the areas where disability
    claims are most frequently filed (i.e.
    orthopedic, mental health, diabetes), and
    interplay w/aging workforce
  • Provide guidance to clients about their rights in
    the hiring, retention, and career advancement
    processes

63
Implications-Rehabilitation Education
  • Continued inclusion of disability
    nondiscrimination legislation provisions in
    counselor training
  • Cultivate counseling skills appropriate to an
    aging workforce
  • Build competency in knowledge and skills in
    apparently most problematic accommodation areas
    for employers
  • Reinforce the importance of cultivating an
    awareness of employment rights in the client in
    the context of the counseling process
  • Cultivate employer consultation skills that
    address apparent most problematic areas of
    employment process

64
Implications-Rehabilitation Research
  • Identify needed skills for counseling with aging
    workforce
  • Identify interventions that heighten client
    efficacy in self advocacy for asserting
    employment rights
  • Identify effective workplace interventions that
    change employer behavior to minimize disability
    employment discrimination in selected parts of
    employment process
  • Identify effective employment policies and
    practices that maximize accommodation for select
    disability types
  • Identify effective employment policies and
    practices that maximize inclusion and minimize
    disability discrimination

65
Behind closed doors Indirect context factors
that impact workplace decisions about people with
disabilities
Hannah Rudstam Disability and Business Technical
Assistance CenterNortheast 1800 949 4232
66
Purposes
  • To broaden the conversation around how disability
    discrimination unfolds in the workplace
  • Not to provide answers, but to pose questions
  • Implications for
  • Education of VR professionals
  • KT efforts communicating with employers

67
Context within which workplace decisions are made
about people with disabilities
Indirect discrimination factors Not directly
related to disability--could subtly but
powerfully impact how decisions are made about
anyone who appears different
Direct discrimination factors Attitudes,
beliefs, expectations directly related to
disability
Gatekeepers
68
Context factors impacting how employment
decisions are made about people with
disabilities
6. Changing voice of the market Importance of
social responsibility to competitive advantage
1. Changing nature of and role of gatekeepers


5. Medical insurance embedded in employment
limits options
2. Rapid rise in productivity expectations
4. Increase in remote leadership and in
leadership spans of control
3. Rapid rise in contingent workforce
69
1. Who are the key players? The emerging
importance of reaching mid-level managers
  • HR professionals are often our point of entry.
  • Yet, mid-level managers might be more important
    as gate-keepers decisions makers
  • Transition from transactional to strategic HR
    practice might heighten the importance of
    mid-level managers as arbiters of employment
    lives of people with disabilities (SHRM Outlook
    Survey, 2008)

70
2. Rapid rise in productivity expectations
Over the past two decades, productivity
expectations have risen dramatically.
71
U.S. workforce productivity has risen
dramatically over the last decade
Productivity in /worker
Source Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Dept.
of Commerce, 2006
72
3.Rapid rise in contingent workforce
Contingent workforce Contingent workers are
defined as those who do not have an explicit or
implicit contract for long-term employment.
73
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Number of New
Jobs in 10 Fastest-Growing Industries.
Projection 2003 - 2012
74
4. Increase in remote leadership and in
leadership spans of control
Managers have more direct reports (Davison,
2003 Gittell, 2001 Buckingham Coffman, 1999
) Managers are more likely to be leading remotely
or virtually (Cogliser, 2000 Kelloway, et.al.,
2003 Watkins, 2009)
75
5.Health insurance-embedded employment impacts
employers decisions and limits entrepreneurial
options for people with disabilities
Extensive literature on how health
insurance-embedded employment impacts work
decisions for people with disabilities. But how
does it affect employers decisions about
hiring? Growing employers fear of rising health
care coststaking steps to contain health care
costs 53 of employers have added a health
assessment form to their benefits enrollment
process (SHRM 2009 Outlook Survey) To avoid
high health care costs, employers may be less
interested in hiring (and insuring) people with
disabilities. (NCD, 2007, p 181) Particularly
an issue for medium small businesses (ODEP
Survey, 2008) Suppresses the entrepreneurial
options of people with disabilities themselves
(DiCicca, 2007)
76
6.Market demand-- Social responsibility and
cause commitment are becoming more important to
competitive advantage and more integrated into
the value proposition
  • Cone Cause Survey, 2007
  • 87 respondents will switch from one product to
    another (price and quality being equal) if the
    other product is associated with a good cause (an
    increase from 66 in 1993)
  • Brands that can engage customers emotionally
    command prices significantly higher than the
    competitors
  • 72 of employees want their employers to do more
    to support a cause (up from 52 in 2004)

77
6.Market demand-- Social responsibility and
cause commitment will become more important to
competitive advantage
Growing customer awareness of expectations
for diversity Increasing importance of diverse
workforce to talent recruitment retentionto
being an employer of choice Uneven inclusion
of disability in diversity efforts (Ball, et.al.
2005)
78
6. Market demand Social responsibility and
cause commitment will become more important to
competitive advantage
A University of Massachusetts Harris Poll
study found that 93 of customers surveyed said
they would PREFER to patronize a business that
has people with disabilities in their workforce
(Sipersteina, et.al., 2005).
79
In summary Taking a broader view--Employers
decisions about hiring, reasonable accommodation,
promotion, etc. are not made in a vacuum.
  • KT Efforts
  • Casting our attention more toward the receivers
    of knowledge
  • The world they live in
  • What context factors condition their decisions?
  • Effective knowledge translation and outreach
    involves understanding the overarching context
    within which the information is received, given
    meaning and acted upon.

80
Resources for Future Reference
  • Disability and Business Technical Assistance
    Centers, ADA Hotline 1-800-949-4232
  • www.adata.org
  • Cornell brochures on workplace disability
    accommodations, HR policies and practices
    www.hrtips.org
  • Cornell national and state disability statistics
    www.DisabilityStatistics.org
  • Employment and Disability Institute
  • www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi

80
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