Navajo Indians 18501930

1
Navajo Indians1850-1930

• Amy Bates
• Kathy Buxton
• Tory Cohn

• Gaby Fonseca
• Diana Kuch
• Hillary Thomas
• Alison Viefhaus

2
Study Guidepage 1

• What is the name of the spiritual force that the
  Navajos believe in?
• What is viewed as the power of the Almighty?
• When is a Kinaalda held in a Navajo girls life?
• Why is a girls attitude so important during the
  Kinaalda?
• What happened to children during the genocidal
  push on Navajos?
• What was The Long Walk?
• When was the New Treaty signed, releasing the
  Navajos?
• What are two traditional games that Navajo
  children played?
• At the age of five, what were Navajo children
  given by their parents?

3
Study Guidepage 2

• What is the other name that the Navajos are known
  by?
• By making the Navajo children learn and speak in
  only English, what was the main affect on their
  Native language?
• What is the name of the first art school founded
  in 1930 for Native Americans?
• What were sandpaintings done for?
• Why was the bear hardly ever killed and eaten in
  the Navajo culture?
• What season did Navajo men go on hunting
  expeditions and why?
• How old were Navajo boys when they started to
  hunt?

4
?

• What is the other name that the Navajos are known
  by?

5
Background Information

• The name Navajo generally meaning Takers of the
  field were given their name by the Tewa people.
  The Navajo are also referred to as Diné, meaning
  The People.
• There are different spellings for both of these
  terms, including Navaho and Dineh.
• The Navajo belong to the linguistic group known
  as the Athapaskan.
• The Navajo Indians are Southwestern Indians
  located the regions of Arizona, Colorado, New
  Mexico, and Utah.

6
?

• What is the name of the spiritual force that the
  Navajos believe in?
• What is viewed as the power of the Almighty?

7
The Almighty

• The Navajo Indians believe in the Almighty.
• The Almighty is a spiritual force that is the
  source of life.
• It is not pictured as a man in the sky
• It is formless and exist in the universe.

8
Prayer

• The Sun
• Viewed as the power of the Almighty
• Is not worshiped
• Is prayed to because it is a symbol of the
  Almighty.

9
Afterlife

• Navajo Indians do not pay much attention to the
  afterlife.
• After death, the soul roams around into a
  different universe.
• The soul carries on with everyday activities like
  he or she used to do when they were alive.
• Same lifedifferent universe.

10
?

• When is a Kinaalda held in a Navajo girls life?
• Why is a girls attitude so important during the
  Kinaalda?

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Ceremony of Kinaalda

• Ceremony for a Navajo girl whose first menstrual
  cycle has begun.
• Dramatic four day and night ceremony is held in
  her honor.
• She becomes a tribal symbol for fertility
• There are many rituals connected to the Kinaalda.
• Most Navajo girls will marry within the year
  after the Kinaalda ceremony.
• HAIR BRUSHING Resembles The Changing Woman and
  purification of the young woman.
• DRESSING in clothing and jewelry that belongs to
  her family is believed that it will bring her
  wealth and success.

12

• LIFTING follows the dressing and is believed that
  the girl will conceive and have babies.
• MOLDING is done to make the girl beautiful and
  shapely. This must be done by a woman who has
  wealth, prosperity, good character, health and
  strength.
• RACING is done to improve the leg muscles and to
  make her body strong, supple and energetic. It
  is thought that those that run with her will
  receive great blessings.
• CORN GRINDING is another very important part of
  this ceremony. It is possibly the greatest test
  of the four day, because it is believed that it
  insures that her future will be strong and
  industrious. Throughout her Kinaalda the girl is
  not allowed to eat anything that is not made of
  corn or she will become lazy, ugly, wrinkled and
  weak and unable to perform her duties.

13

• ALKAAN is sweetened corn bread that is baked as
  an offering to the sun. The Alkaan is then cut
  and everyone is given piece. It is believed that
  the cake must be shared with everyone or the girl
  will become a selfish person. It is believed
  that if the girl eats her own cake that her teeth
  will fall out, and she will get old right away.
• BRUSHING AND PAINTING is done after the Alkaan
  is served. The girls hair is brushed again.
  She is then painted with paint made of white
  shells and represents The Changing Woman.
• The completion of the Kinaalda is followed by
  Navajo ceremonial practices of a four day period
  of ceremonial quiet. Ideally the girl will
  reflect on the events of the four day ceremony
  and what has been taught to her. A girls
  attitude is extremely important during the
  ceremony because it is believed that their adult
  personality will be determined by the mannerisms
  and actions displayed during the Kinaalda.

14
?

• What happened to children during the genocidal
  push on Navajos?
• What was The Long Walk?
• When was the new Treaty signed, releasing the
  Navajos?

15
Major Events

• Early 1850s
• Culture clashes reached a violent peak with
  Hispanic, Navajo, Mescalero, Ute and Anglo
  peoples all struggling for survival.
• The first U.S. Army outpost on Navajo territory
  was built and named Fort Defiance.
• 1860s
• Thousands of Navajos attacked Fort Defiance, but
  failed to dislodge the army.
• 1860-1868
• Women and children of the tribes were stolen and
  sold as slaves.

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Major Events cont.

• 1862
• Kit Carleson, under the orders of General James
  Carleton began a genocidal push against Navajo
  and Apache.
• All male Navajos were to surrender or be shot.
• Those who surrendered were taken to Fort Sumner
  in Eastern New Mexico.
• This was known as The Long Walk because the
  trek was 300 miles long.

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Major Events cont.

• Late 1863- December 1864
• 8,354 Navajos surrendered.
• Navajos were quickly transferred across New
  Mexico Territory. (The Long Walk)
• The aged, weak, children, and pregnant women who
  could not keep up were shot.
• Exposure and dysentery took hundreds of more
  lives.
• Final death count was about 3,000 Navajos

18
Major Events cont.

• 1868
• U.S. admits failure at civilizing the Navajo
  and General Carleton was discharged for tyranny.
• June 1, 1868
• A new treaty was signed releasing the Navajo back
  to the reservation sites although many chose to
  return to their original homes.

19
?

• Why was the bear hardly ever killed and eaten in
  the Navajo culture?
• What season did Navajo men go on hunting
  expeditions and why?
• How old were Navajo boys when they started to
  hunt?

20
Making a Living

• The Navajo economy from the 1600s to the mid
  1900s depended on agriculture and livestock.
• During the summer months the Navajo planted corn,
  beans, and squash on the floodplains and
  tributaries of the San Juan River, while they
  raised their sheep, horses, and goats in the
  mountains.
• Winter camps were at a lower elevation where they
  could be more protected from the elements.
• During this period the expression making a
  living referred to collecting enough food to
  stay alive.

21
Agriculture

• Beans, corn, and squash were staples to the
  Navajo people.
• Any and every kind of seed and root that could be
  used, was used for something.
• Planting and cultivating was a family job. The
  men would start digging holes and or rows, and
  the women and children would follow behind
  dropping seeds into the soil and then covering
  them up.
• While men were away hunting, women would do their
  part, by digging up roots or shaking tiny seeds
  from wild plants.

22
Hunting

• Every man and boy was expected to become a
  hunter.
• Boys as young as four were busy setting traps for
  rats and gophers. It was not until they reached
  the age of 18 that they were aloud to accompany
  their tribe on hunting expeditions.
• Men would be away on hunting expeditions for
  months at time, mostly in the Autumn season. The
  Autumn season was the best for hunting because it
  was this time that the animals were the fattest
  and could provide the most food and supplies.
• The meat of the animal was eaten, their teeth
  were used to make jewelry, their bones were used
  to make spears and digging and hunting tools, and
  their fur was used to make blankets and coats.

23
The Bear

• The Navajo killed and ate almost every animal.
• One of the only exceptions was the Bear. The
  bear was seen as almost human because it could
  walk on its hind legs and use its paws like a
  man.
• The only time a bear was killed was when its
  skin was needed for a ceremony, or when the
  Navajo people were starving and could find no
  other food.
• When the bear was killed, the person killing it
  spoke to it first to explain why they must be
  killed and then the bear was prayed for. When it
  was killed, it was clubbed so no blood would be
  drawn.

24
Harder Times

• After the Navajo were permitted to return to
  their homeland after the long walk to Fort
  Sumner, agriculture was not the same.
• Because the Navajo were given small pieces of
  land, overgrazing and soil erosion became
  problems. This led to the reduction of
  livestock.
• This reduction depressed a lot of the Navajo
  because their wealth was measured in sheep and
  many were led to slaughter their herds in order
  to make a living.

25
?

• By making the Navajo children learn and speak in
  only English, what was the main affect on their
  Native language?

26
Education

• Navajo children were traditionally educated by
  their parents and fellow tribes people.
• Their education was started as soon as they could
  walk and they were treated like adults.
• The children were taught to act like elders in
  the tribe. They were taught how to get food,
  tribal customs, and the history of their people.
• Children were taught orally.
• That is how they learned the Athapaskan language.

27

• Indian children were starting to be educated by
  the Government in this time period. The Indian
  children were taken off of the reservation and
  sent to boarding schools. This was done to
  civilize the children and to teach them English.
• The schools were to teach the children how to
  speak, read and write English. They wanted
  English to replace their Native Language. This
  lead to the decline of the native language of
  Indians and of their customs.

28

• In 1903 the government had made plans to build a
  school near the Navajo Reservation. This
  received a favorable response from the Navajos
  because they would no longer lose their children
  to the boarding schools, which were much further
  away.
• The Government agreed to build the facility
  because they were guaranteed that one hundred
  students would be enrolled there.
• The construction started on the facility in 1905
  and was open for enrollment on September 1, 1906.

29
Carlisle Indian Industrial School

• One of the boarding schools that Indian children,
  including Navajo children, were sent to was the
  Carlisle Indian Industrial School in
  Pennsylvania.
• The school was funded by Richard Pratt in 1879,
  with the thought of assimilating Indian children
  by taking them to the boarding school.
• The children were taught manners, job skills, and
  how they should dress. School was conducted in
  military style, where they were given ranks,
  marched, and performed drills.
• The students hair was cut on the first day of
  school and they were given uniforms.

30

• The children learned academics the first half of
  the day, and trades the second half.
• During the time period of 1879-1918 the Carlisle
  schools had a wide variety of students from
  different tribes including 43 Navajo children.
• The tradition of the boarding schools forcing
  assimilation to the boarding schools had started
  to change by the 1930s. At this time, they were
  no longer forcing students to assimilate.

31
?

• What are two traditional games that Navajo
  children played?
• At the age of five, what were Navajo children
  given by their parents?

32
Work and Play

• The Navajo were good and loving parents. They
  seldom punished their children.
• However, Navajo children were scarcely spoiled.
• Children grew up around many relatives from whom
  they learned practical skills for providing for
  themselves and they also received instruction in
  the customs of their people.
• Once children were old enough, they were expected
  to help around the Hogan (house), carrying
  firewood or tending to the sheep.
• At the age of five, each Navajo child is given a
  lamb that they are to take care of. The lamb is
  entirely their responsibility and they must care
  for all aspects of this lamb.

33
String Games

• Navajo children had few toys so they became quite
  resourceful in inventing their own games. There
  were also traditional games that the Navajo
  children played as well.
• String games were very prevalent for the Navajo.
  These string games were played during the winter
  only because the winter season is when spiders
  hibernate.
• It was believed if anyone played a string game
  outside of the winter season, they would either
  be struck by lightning, fall off of a horse, or
  be urinated upon by spiders.
• There are roughly 75 figures that can be made
  from these string games, ranging from stars, to
  birds, to rockets, arrows, and so on.

34
The Shoe Game

• The shoe game is another traditional Navajo game.
• In this game many shoes are hidden in a box of
  sand with only the tops of the shoes in view.
• Children were split into teams and each team was
  to hide a yucca ball in one of the shoes.
• The other team guesses which shoe the ball is in.
  If they are correct, then they get to hide the
  ball and receive yucca branches which are
  essentially points.
• If they guess incorrectly, the team that hid the
  yucca ball receives yucca branches.
• Once all of the yucca branches are gone, they are
  counted up to determine the winning team.

35
?

• What is the name of the first art school founded
  in 1930 for Native Americans?
• What were sandpaintings done for?

36
Arts and Crafts (general info.)

• Navajo learned weaving, making cloth, and art
  from the Pueblo Indians.
• They used sheep to make clothes, blankets, and
  rugs. They use natural vegetable dyes still
  today.
• Their art uses symbols and signs that represent
  their ideas, beliefs, dreams, and visions.
• Turquoise was mined by the southwestern tribes.
  It is the stone of happiness, health and good
  fortune.
• Navajo are known for their silverwork that they
  learned from the Mexicans.

37
Pottery

• Pottery was made for domestic use for many years.
• From trading posts, Navajos obtained better
  utensils made from metal and glass.
• The necessity of pottery declined as a household
  good.
• In 1930 a revival movement of pottery making
  attracted European and American attention.
• Young women became disinterested in learning
  pottery making skills from their mothers.
• Lucy Leuppe McKelvey is a well-known potter that
  makes large vessels with geometric designs and
  life-form figures.
• Lucy feels pottery making is very personal and
  has taught her 3 daughters pottery making in
  order to keep the Navajo tradition alive.

38
Rugs

• All Navajo rugs are considered tapestries due to
  the tightness of the weave.
• Ganado rug is viewed as the classic Navajo rug.
  It has a bold red background, accented by a
  central diamond shape with a black, white and
  gray design of zigzags, geometric patterns and
  crosses are at the corners.
• Navajo weaving is predominately created by women
  and only a few males.
• Some younger people are learning that art of
  weaving and others go into other fields.
• The future of Navajo weaving is unknown.

39
Sandpaintings

• Made on the floor of the hogan (dwelling) by the
  medicine man (chanter)
• Considered an important sacred object that
  depicts a scene of the Holy Ones.
• Achieved by sprinkling dry sand, colored with
  natural pigments like ground shell, charcoal, and
  pollen
• Used ceremonially to cure a patient from
  sickness,
• There are only about 700 medicine men and women
  today.
• Not many young people are interested in becoming
  chanters.
• As a result, ceremonial sandpaintings are
  becoming extinct.

40
Art Schools

• 1910-1920
• White anthropoligists and school teachers
  commissioned southwest Indians to illustrate
  traditional culture.
• Some teachers even encouraged native students to
  experiment with White artistic media.
• Native American watercolorists influenced nearby
  tribes when the experiment continued at the Santa
  Fe Indian School
• 1930
• Founding of The Studio the first art school for
  Native Americans by Dorothy Dunn.
• Dunn influenced her students to adopt a flat, two
  dimensional Indian style and taught them to use
  pastels.
• Two famous Navajo artists from this school are
  Harrison Begay and Andrew Tsinajinnie.

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The End

• Thank you for watching and listening!

42
Works Cited
43
Amy Bates

• Allen, T.D. Navahos Have Five Fingers, University
  of Oklahoma Press Norman 1963
• Arizona State University, Fall 2001,
  http//www.asu.edu/lib/archives/boardingschools.ht
  ml
• Carlisle Indian School, http//home.epix.net/land
  is/main.html
• Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 7,
  Northwest Coast, 1990
• McPherson, Robert S. The Northern Navajo Frontier
  1860-1900 Expansion Through Adversity,
  University of New Mexico Press, 1988

44
Amy Bates cont.

• Readers Digest, Americas Fascinating Indian
  Heritage, The Readers Digest Inc. New York, 1978
• White, John Manchip Everyday Life of the North
  American Indian, Holmes Meier Publishers Inc.,
  New York, 1979
• Yenne, Bill. The Encyclopedia of North American
  Tribes, Cresent Books, New York. 1986

45
Kathy Buxton

• Bassman, Theda. The Treasures of the Navaho.
  Arizona Northland Publishing Company, 1997
• Feest, Christian. Native Arts of North America.
  New York Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1992
• Mather, Christine. Native America Arts,
  Traditions, and Celebrations. New York Clarkson
  Potter Publishers, 1990
• Roesssel, Ruth. Navajo Arts and Crafts.
  Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 10,
  1983
• Southwest Art. Art, Pottery, Baskets,
  Jewelry. 1/16/2005. http//inkido.indiana.edu/w310
  work/romac/art.htm

46
Tory Cohn

• Bial, Raymond. The Navajo. Marshall Cowendish
  Corp. 1999
• Bonvillain, Nancy. The Navajos. Connecticut
  Millbrook Press Inc. 1995
• Kehoe, Alice B. North American Indians. New
  Jersey 1992
• Roessel, Robert A. Jr. Pictoral History of the
  Navajo from 1860-1910. Arizona Navajo Curriculum
  Center. 1980
• Wood, Leigh Hope. The Navajo Indians.
  Pennsylvania Chelsea House Publishers. 1991

47
Gaby Fonseca

• Doak, Michael. Native American Spirituality.
  1997. University of Virginia. 19 Jan. 2005
  http//religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/na
  spirit.html
• Eck, Pam. Religion. 15 April 1998. IUPUI 16 Jan
  2005. http//inkidon.indiana.edu/w310work/romac/sw
  relig.htm
• Griffin-Pierce, Trudy. Native People of the
  Southwest. Albuquerque University of New Mexico
  Press, 2000
• Readers Digest Association. Through Indian Eyes.
  New York Phillipine, 1995
• Sullivan, Lawrence E. Native Religions and
  Cultures of North America. New York Continuum
  International, 2000

48
Diana Kuch

• Coolidge, Dane. Under the Sun Novel of the
  Navajo Exile in 1863-69. New York E.P. Dutton
  Co., 1927
• Coolidge, Dane and Mary. The Navajo Indians. New
  York Houghton Mifflin, 1930
• Coolidge, Mary Roberts. The Rainmakers. New
  Mexico William Gannon, 1975.
• Driver, Harold. Girls Puberty Rites in Western
  North America. University of California
  Anthropological Records. VI, No. 2, Culture
  Element Distributions XVI (1941) Pp. 21-90
• Kluckhohn, Clyde and Leighton, Dorothea. The
  Navaho. Cambridge, Massachusetts Harvard
  University Press, 1948
• Lamphere, Louise. To Run After Them. University
  of Arizona Press, 1977

49
Hillary Thomas

• Kelley, Klara B. NavajolandFamily Settlement and
  Land. Tsaile, Arizona Navajo Community College
  Press, 1989
• Levy, Jerrold E. In the Beginning The Navajo
  Genesis. University of California Press, 1998
• Lipps, Oscar H. A Little History of Navajos.
  Albuquerque, New Mexico Avanyu Publishing, Inc.,
  1989
• Smith, Michael L. http//www.ausbcomp.com/redman/n
  avajo.htm
• 1998

50
Alison Viefhaus

• Hill, W. W. The Agricultural and Hunting Methods
  of the Navaho Indians. London Humphrey Milford,
  Oxford University Press, 1938
• Iverson, Peter. Diné A History of the Navajos.
  Albuquerque, New Mexico University of New Mexico
  Press, 2002.
• McPherson, Robert S. Navajo Indians. Utah History
  Encyclopedia. 26 January 2005. http//www.media.ut
  ah.edu/UHE/n/NAVAJOINDIANS.html
• McPherson, Robert S. The Northern Navajo Frontier
  1860-1900 Expansion through Adversity.
  University of New Mexico Press, 1988
• Underhill, Ruth M. Here Come the Navaho!. United
  States Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1953
• Underhill, Ruth M. The Navajos. University of
  Oklahoma Press Norman, 1956