Getahuns

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• Chapter One
• Understanding Inclusive Education
• Definition of Terminologies
• Impairment
• It refers to any loss or abnormality of
  physiological, psychological or anatomical
  structure or function.
• It is the absence of particular body part or
  organ. Some children, for instance, have
  impairments such as eyes that do not see well,
  arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not
  developing in a typical way etc. Impairment is a
  physical construct.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Disability
• It is any restriction or lack of ability to
  perform an activity in a manner or with in the
  range considered normal for human being.
• It limits a persons ability to perform certain
  tasks such as seeing, hearing, walking in the
  same manner in which people without disabilities
  do.
• It is a reduction in function. It usually
  results from impairment. It is a functional
  construct.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Handicap
• It is a disadvantage for a given individual,
  resulting from an impairment or disability that
  limits/ prevents the fulfillment of a role that
  is considered as normal depending on age, sex,
  and social and cultural factors. It is a
  limitation of opportunities to take part in life
  of the community. It describes the encounter
  between the person with disability and the
  environment.
• Handicappedness is a social construct that an
  individual with disability is not able to perform
  what he/she is expected by society due to the
  impairment experienced. The term handicap has
  more negative connotation than the terms
  impairment and disability

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Special Needs Education is a specially designed
  instruction to meet the unique needs of children
  with disability, including instruction
  conducted in the classroom , in the home, in
  hospitals and institutions and in other
  settings ( Smith and Luckasson 1995) .
• It also includes the education of gifted,
  creative or talented students who need additional
  educational service to exploit their rich
  potentials to their optimum possible level.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Students with special needs are individuals who
  require special education and related special
  services in order to achieve their fullest
  potential. They can be categorized into different
  groups children with Intellectual limitation or
  mental retardation, Communication and language
  difficulties, Learning disabilities, Visual
  impairments, Hearing impairments, Physical and
  health impairments , Gifted and talented
  Emotional and behavioral disorder , Deprived
  background i.e extreme Poor ,migrant (war,
  natural disaster), street children ,child labor
  ,drug abused , Minorities and Children at risk
• (Smith and Luckasson 1995).

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Mode of educational Approach for children with
  disabilities
• Segregation
• It is an educational placement where children
  with disabilities are educated in separate school
  environment or in a special needs class.
• Today it is discouraged for its social and
  academic discrimination among children with
  disabilities and children without disabilities.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Integration
• It refers to the placement of children with
  disability in educational programs that also
  serve children without disability. A similar term
  is mainstreaming but not necessarily the
  identical treatment condition for both.  
• Integration in its widest usage entails a
  process of making whole, of combining different
  elements into a unit. As used in special
  education, it refers, to the education of pupils
  with special needs in ordinary schools.
  Integration provides a natural environment
  where these pupils are together with their peers,
  are free from the isolation that is
  characteristics of much special school placement.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Professionals distinguished three main forms of
  integration in terms of association location,
  social, and functional integration.
• Locational integration exists where special units
  or classes are set up in ordinary schools or
  where a special school and ordinary school share
  the same geographical site.
• Social integration is where children attending a
  special class or unit eat, play and consort with
  other children and possibly share organized
  out-of-classroom activities with them.
• Functional integration is the fullest form of
  integration and is achieved when location and
  social integration lead to participation in
  educational activities. As the whole, integration
  is not necessarily the identical treatment of
  students with and without disabilities in a
  regular setting.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Educators have found that in most cases, an
  integrated educational setting gives students
  with disabilities the opportunity to interact
  with their peers without disabilities and better
  prepares them for life in the real world.
• It also gives the opportunity for students
  without disabilities to learn about the
  complexity and diversity of human characteristics
  the special behaviors and extra-needs of children
  with disabilities.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Mainstreaming
• It refers to the return of children with
  disability previously educated exclusively in
  segregated settings to regular classroom, for all
  or part of the school day.
• Treatment of a child with special needs like
  students without disability one places the child
  in the least restrictive environment to meet
  his/her educational and social needs. This has
  resulted in increased emphasis on mainstreaming
  children with disabilities.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Intervention
• It is an attempt to prevent, or eliminate
  impairments, disabilities and handicaps or
  improve functional efficiency . It is a broad
  term that includes preventive measures taken
  before the occurrence of the problem and/or to
  change the situation after the occurrence of the
  problem. Early intervention plays a significant
  role in diverting the situation of the child and
  promoting his/her educational and psychosocial
  development. 
• Rehabilitation
• It is a goal oriented activity aimed at enabling
  persons with disabilities to reach maximum
  mental, physical, social, and level of
  functioning. It includes educational,
  psychological, medical and vocational services.
  It often refers to the situation which comes
  after the onset of the problem.

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Definition of Terminologies(Contd)

• Inclusion
• Inclusion can be seen as a process of addressing
  and responding to the diversity of needs of all
  children, youth and adults through increasing
  participation in learning, cultures and
  communities, and reducing and eliminating
  exclusion within and from education.
• It involves changes and modifications in
  content, approaches, structures and strategies,
  with a common vision that covers all children of
  the appropriate age range and a conviction that
  it is the responsibility of the regular system to
  educate all children (UNESCO, 2009).

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• Inclusion means a shift in services from simply
  trying to fit the child into 'normal settings'
  it is a supplemental support for their
  disabilities on special needs and promoting the
  child's overall development in an optimal
  setting.

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• Inclusion involves
• restructuring cultures, policies and practices
  to respond to the diversity of students in their
  locality
• learning and participation of all students
  vulnerable to exclusionary pressures (i.e. not
  just students with disabilities)
• improving schools for staff as well as students
  overcoming barriers to access and participation
• the right of students to be educated in their
  local community

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• seeing diversity as a rich resource, not as a
  problem
• mutually sustaining relationships between
  schools and communities
• seeing inclusive education as an aspect of an
  inclusive society.
• All of the above definitions emphasize that
  inclusion is for all, and not just about a
  specific group.

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• Inclusive Education
• It is a practice of assuring that all students
  with disabilities participate with other students
  in all aspects of school (Smith Luckasson,
  1995).
• It is a process of providing education for all
  children regardless of their background and
  ability differences in the same class.
• Inclusive education is a process of
  strengthening the capacity of the education
  system to reach out to all learners (UNESCO,
  2009).
• It is an education system that is open to all
  learners, regardless of economic status, gender,
  ethnic backgrounds, language, learning
  difficulties and impairments.

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• It implies a radical reform of the school in
  terms of educational policy and curricular
  frameworks, which includes educational content,
  assessment, pedagogy and the systemic grouping of
  pupils within institutional and curricular
  structures.
• Inclusion also implies that all teachers are
  responsible for the education of all learners.

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• Inclusive education means welcoming all children,
  without discrimination, into regular or ordinary
  schools. Indeed, it is a focus on creating
  environments responsive to the differing
  developmental capacities, needs, and potentials
  of all children.
• It is about
• identifying barriers that hinder learning,
• reducing or removing these barriers in schools,
  vocational training, higher education, teacher
  education, education management, and work places
• adjusting learning environments to meet the
  needs of all learners.

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• The following are tenets of a positive inclusive
  philosophy
• Every student has the right to participate in
  all aspects of school life
• Every student will participate in a regular
  homeroom with supports to individual needs
  provided through that classroom modification of
  regular curriculum will take place outside the
  regular classroom only if specific skills cannot
  be accommodated within a regular setting
• All students will be placed in an age-appropriate
  setting, within the students attendance area.

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Inclusion means

• 1. Educating all children with disabilities in
  regular classrooms regardless of the nature of
   their disabling condition(s).
•  2. Providing all students enhanced opportunities
  to learn from each others contributions.
•  3. Providing necessary services within the
  regular schools.
•  4.  Supporting regular teachers and
  administrators (e.g., by providing time,
  training, teamwork, resources, and strategies).
•  5. Having students with disabilities follow the
  same schedules as students without disabilities.
• 6.Involving students with disabilities in
  age-appropriate academic classes and
  extracurricular activities, including art, music,
  gym, field trips, assemblies, and physical
  exercises.

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• 7.  Students with disabilities using school
  cafeteria, library, playing filed, playground,
  and other facilities along with students without
  disabilities.
•  8. Encouraging friendships between students with
  and without disabilities
• 9. Students with disabilities receiving their
  education and job training in regular community
  environments when appropriate.
•  10. Teaching all children to understand and
  accept human differences.
•  11. Placing children with disabilities in the
  same schools they would attend with their peers
  without disabilities.
•  12. Taking parents concerns seriously.
•  13.Providing an appropriate individualized
  educational program.

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 INCLUSION DOES NOT MEAN

• 1. It does not mean dumping students with
  disabilities into regular programs without
  preparation or support. 
•  2. It does not mean providing special education
  services in separate or isolated places.
• 3. It does not mean ignoring childrens
  individual needs.
•  4. It does not mean jeopardizing students
  safety or well being.

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•  5. It does not mean placing unreasonable demands
  on teachers and administrators.
•  6.  It does not mean ignoring parents concerns.
•  7.It does not mean isolating students with
  disabilities in regular schools.
• 8. It does not mean placing students with
  disabilities in schools or classes that are not
  age-appropriate.
•  9.It does not mean requiring that students be
  ready and earn their way into regular
  classrooms based on cognitive or social skills.

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Elements of Inclusion

• Natural Proportions Students are assigned to
  classes with consideration to the natural
  proportions of the population that live in the
  school jurisdiction.
• A Zero-Reject Approach All students who live
  in the community, regardless of their ability or
  disability, are considered members of the school
  community and are expected to attend and
  participate in all aspects of school life.
• Collaborative Leadership At the district level,
  the school level, and within instructional teams,
  collaborative structures are followed for
  clarifying issues, brainstorming ideas for
  solutions, establishing priorities, assigning
  responsibilities for actions, and reviewing
  progress toward defined goals.
• Teams share the roles of meeting facilitation,
  recording notes, encouraging each others
  participation, and being accountable for work to
  be done outside of the meeting. Nominal leaders
  (principals, supervisors, etc.) support the team
  with shared leadership and using brainstorming
  structures to solve problems.

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• Instructional Collaboration Collaboration
  between and among school staff is necessary
  for joint curricular planning and individual
  student planning.
• Both special and general educators need to adopt
  new roles in planning and delivering lessons in
  the classroom, evaluating student progress, and
  designing modifications that are needed for
  individual students.
• Both general and special educators have
  responsibility for the delivery of special
  education services.

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• Instructionally Appropriate Programs and Learning
  Environments Instructional environments
  (classroom and other general education settings)
  will be designed to address the grade-appropriate
  instruction in the school Learning Outcomes for
  students with and without disabilities, and will
  also address the accommodations, adaptations, and
  other modifications to materials, strategies, or
  equipment so that all students can participate in
  age-appropriate general education lessons while
  working on their individualized goals.

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• Professional Development Professional
  development conducted within schools always
  addresses how to apply the knowledge and skills
  to students who have special academic,
  behavioral, and other instructional needs.
• Application for students who receive special
  education services is infused within the teacher
  training.
• Areas for staff development include curriculum
  differentiation, collaboration, co-teaching,
  positive behavior support strategies, and
  fostering positive and cooperative social
  relationships.

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Characteristics of Inclusion(Child Friendly
Schools)

• 1. Reflects and realizes the rights of every
  child cooperates with other partners to promote
  and monitor the well-being and rights of all
  children defends and protects all children from
  abuse and harm (as a sanctuary), both inside and
  outside the school
• 2. Sees and understands the whole child, in a
  broad context is concerned with what happens to
  children before they enter the system (e.g.,
  their readiness for school in terms of health and
  nutritional status, social and linguistic
  skills), and once they have left the classroom
  back in their homes, the community, and the
  workplace

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• 3. Is child-centered encourages participation,
  creativity, self-esteem, and psycho-social
  well-being promotes a structured, child-centered
  curriculum and teaching-learning methods
  appropriate to the childs developmental level,
  abilities, and learning style and considers the
  needs of children over the needs of the other
  actors in the system.
• 4. Is gender-sensitive and girl-friendly
  promotes parity in the enrolment and achievement
  of girls and boys reduces constraints to gender
  equity and eliminates gender stereotypes
  provides facilities, curricula, and learning
  processes welcoming to girls

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• 5. Promotes quality learning outcomes
  encourages children to think critically, ask
  questions, express their opinions and learn how
  to learn helps children master the essential
  enabling skills of writing, reading, speaking,
  listening, and mathematics and the general
  knowledge and skills required for living in the
  new century including useful traditional
  knowledge and the values of peace, democracy, and
  the acceptance of diversity.
• 6. Provides education based on the reality of
  childrens lives ensures that curricular
  content responds to the learning needs of
  individual children as well as to the general
  objectives of the education system and the local
  context and traditional knowledge of families and
  the community.
• 7. Is flexible and responds to diversity meets
  differing circumstances and needs of children
  (e.g., as determined by gender, culture, social
  class, ability level)

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• 8. Acts to ensure inclusion, respect, and
  equality of opportunity for all children does
  not stereotype, exclude, or discriminate on the
  basis of difference
• 9. Promotes mental and physical health provides
  emotional support , encourages healthy behaviors
  and practices, and guarantees a hygienic, safe,
  secure, and joyful environment
• 10. Provides education that is affordable and
  accessible especially to children and families
  most at-risk

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• 11. Enhances teacher capacity, morale,
  commitment, and status ensures that its
  teachers have sufficient pre-service training,
  in-service support and professional development,
  status, and income
• 12. Is family focused attempts to work with and
  strengthen families and helps children, parents
  and teachers establish harmonious, collaborative
  partnerships .

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• 13. Is community-based strengthens school
  governance through a decentralized,
  community-based approach encourages parents,
  local government, community organizations, and
  other institutions of civil society to
  participate in the management as well as the
  financing of education promotes community
  partnerships and networks focused on the rights
  and wellbeing of children.

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• Successful inclusion requires a shift in
  attitudes and beliefs of all school personnel and
  parents such that all involved truly believe that
  students with disabilities can succeed in the
  regular education environment.
• Generally, Inclusive schools
• embrace diversity,
• provide access to knowledge, skills, and
  information to all students,
• tailor learning to meet individual needs,
• encourage co-teaching and collaboration among
  general and special educators,
• collaborate with families and community members,
• think outside the box in terms of school
  structure and finance,
• maintain high expectations of all students,
• engage in continuous improvement, and
• promote and support inclusive communities.

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Theoretical Basis of Inclusive Education

• In order to improve the educational services for
  all students, professionals are beginning to
  apply a different set of assumptions from those
  used in the past those evolved from different
  developmental and educational theories of human
  disability and learning.
• There are different theories and paradigms.
  However, three of them are presented as follow.

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• Individual Based Paradigm In this paradigm, the
  unit of analysis is the person.
• They stated that the cause of individual
  deficiency or failure rests with in the
  individual and his/her physical body.
• As a result, individuals may not progress
  satisfactorily because of inadequate cognitive,
  behavioral, sensory, motor, medical or physical
  characteristics.
• So, intervention strategy should involve
  assessing individual attributes and includes such
  strategies like correcting conduct disorders ,
  and remediating sensory deficits.
• This approach didnt take into consideration
  about complex experiences of individuals in
  social setting by giving due attention to
  internal causes of disability.

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• 2. Environment Based Paradigm In this paradigm,
  unit of analysis is primarily rests on the
  environment.
• They assume that since behavior is learned,
  individuals fail to progress because of
  inappropriate environmental circumstances in
  which they develop/learn.
• So, intervention strategy should include
  evaluating the learning environment, matching the
  characteristics of teachers and related services
  provided to individuals.
• Therefore, evaluating student characteristics,
  student_ teacher ratio, and facilitative family
  involvement are important.
• This approach is criticized for its undermining
  the role of the individual in coping the
  situations and promote single cause /side effect
  understanding in human behavior

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• 3. System Based approach.
• They view that all facets of the individual and
  environment are important and that development is
  a complex process in which outcomes are better
  determined by the active participation of the two
  elements.
• They believe that we have to focus on the whole
  child and the whole environment rather than
  sticking on single element.
• For them, learning and behavioral deficiencies
  are not the result of the individual factor or
  environmental factors. But, the interplay of the
  two factors.
• The interaction of the two act upon the
  individual and on each other
• They shift the focus away from the search for
  causes of problems in individuals and environment
  towards defining the conditions that will lead to
  individual progress.
• The whole environment and individual effort are
  valued by this approach.

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Challenges of IE in Schools

• The existence of
• Attitudinal barriers
• Inadequate trained personal
• Rigid curriculum and teaching methods
• Inadequate instructional materials and assistive
  devices
• Large class size and limited space
• inaccessibility of facilities and services

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Opportunities of Inclusive Education

• existence of Legislations and policy frameworks
• existence of Associations that work with people
  with disabilities and civic societies
• Provision of School-based awareness and
  in-services training program

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International and National Legal framework and
Policy Issues

• Universal Declaration Of Human Rights (UDHR)This
  declaration ensures three important rights
• Right to education (fundamental human rights
  rights that are universal, indivisible,
  interconnected and interdependent)
• Right to equalization of opportunities
• Right to participate in society

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Convention On The Rights Of The Child

• States the rights of all children to basic
  quality primary education
• Make primary education compulsory and available
  free to all (UPE).
• It assures the rights of the child to education
  based on his or her needs, abilities and pace of
  effective learning

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Convention Against Discrimination In Education

• To combat discriminatory treatment in education
• promote the opportunity of addressing their
  learning needs,
• children in disadvantaged situations or who
  experience conditions of risk, disability have
  the right to education of the same quality and
  standard

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World Declaration On Education For All (EFA)

• This declaration confirms that every human being
  including children, youth, adults, females,
  street children, immigrants, children with
  disability, have right to quality and equity in
  education.

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U N Standard Rules Of Equalization Of
Opportunities For Persons With Disabilities

• Every individual has equal opportunity for
  participation
• Accessibility
• Education
• Employment
• Income maintenance and social security
• Family life and personal integrity (marriage,
  parenthood, sexual relationship)
• Culture
• Recreation and sports
• Religion

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Salamanca Frame Work For Action

• It was declared in an international conference on
  special needs education held in Salamanca, Spain
  in 1994.
• The conference emphasized the following
  principles
• The right of children including those with
  temporary and permanent special education needs
  to attend school.
• The right of all children to attend school in
  their home community
• The right of children to participate in a
  child-centered education meeting individual needs
• The right of all children to participate in
  quality education that is meaningful for each
  child.

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The Ethiopian ConstitutionNational Documents

• Article 41(3,5) stipulates the right of citizens
  to equal access to publicly funded services and
  about the allocation of resources to provide
  rehabilitation and assistance
• Art. 9(4) of the EFDRE constitution states that
  all international agreements ratified by
  Ethiopian are the integral part of the law of the
  country.

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Education and Training Policy /ETP,1994/

• Education structure no. 32-1
• conforms the importance of early childhood
  education stating that kindergarten to focus on
  the all round development of the child in
  preparation for formal schooling
• Educational structure no. 3 2.9
• Special education and training will be provided
  for people with special needs.

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Cont

• Educational structure no. 2 2.3
• confirms that efforts will be made to enable
• People with special needs /both with disability
  and the Gifted/ learn in accordance with their
  potential and needs.
• Higher Education Proclamation No.650/2009,
• Article 40, item1 states that institutions shall
  make, to the extent possible, their facilities
  and programs are easy to use by physically
  challenged students

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The special needs education program strategy
(2006)

• The key elements of the strategy are
• It states the assurance of favourable policy
  environment
• Duties responsibilities are stated for
  stakeholders in education system at different
  administration level
• Using strengthening national expertise
• States about allocation and use of
  funds,Cooperation and partners
• Indicates responsibilities of School management
  and Teacher education
• Design establishment and functioning of support
  systems.

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Education Sector Development /ESDP IV/2010-2015

• Expected program outcomes
• Enrollment of children with special educational
  needs increased at all levels of education and
  due attention will be given to girls with special
  needs
• Number of trained teachers in SNE/ inclusive
  education increased
• Capacity of schools in addressing the academic
  and social needs of children with special
  educational needs improved

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Proclamation and code

• Building code (Article) 624/2009
• Even if the code was declared for the convenient
  of physical accessibilities in architectural
  activities still the problem is not minimized.
• Proclamation on the Rights of Person with
  disabilities to Employment Proclamation No.
  101/1994 states about the right of PWD to
  appropriate training, employment opportunities,
  salary, selection criteria, grievance procedure

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Cont

• The common powers and duties of Ministers
  (proclamation 691/2003 E.C.)
• In Article 10(5) create within its power,
  conditions whereby persons with disabilities and
  HIV/AIDS victims benefit from equal opportunities
  and full participation.

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Inclusive Schools

• What is Inclusive schools?
• Developed whole-school processes that promote
  inclusive education and quality teaching and
  classroom practice that are responsive to the
  individual needs and divers learning styles of
  students
• Recognize and respond to the diverse needs of
  students and ensuring quality education for all
  through
• appropriate curricula,
• organizational arrangements,
• resource use and
• partnerships with their community.
• A school where all children should learn
  together regardless of differences.

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Characteristics of inclusive schools

• Is deeply committed to the belief that all
  children can learn.
• Restructuring school culture , policy, and
  practice.
• Promoting pro-social (students support students,
  teachers support teachers, parents support
  parents, community support schools).
• School services and facilities are equally
  accessible to students with and without
  disability.
• Involves mobilizing resources within school and
  community

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Cont

• Is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled
  personnel (e.g. Teachers, specialists, aides,
  clinicians, volunteers and other students) to
  assist students with their learning.
• Create strong links with parents, clinicians,
  caregivers, staff in local special schools,
  disability services providers and relevant
  support agencies within the wider community.

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Involves mobilizing resources within school and
community

• What is inclusive Classroom(ICR)
• It is an effective classroom in creating learning
  environment suitable for all learners.
• Creating a welcoming and accessible environment
  in which all children learn and develop social
  relationships as an equal member of the class.
• A classroom responsive to the diversity of
  students academic, social and personal learning
  needs.

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Characteristics of ICR

• In inclusive classrooms students have a variety
  of ways to access information and demonstrate
  what they know
• Teachers of successful inclusive classrooms
  utilize student strengths, incorporate creative
  teaching strategies, and support peer
  interaction.
• Inclusive classrooms focus on utilizing strengths
• focused on the strengths of the child instead of
  areas of weakness
• Inclusive classrooms create a sense of belonging
• Equal member of the class

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Classroom Situation

• Creating inclusive ICR which is free from
  internal and external influences
• The classroom free from attitudinal and
  architectural barriers.
• Creating favorable classroom situation where all
  students feel a sense of belongingness in a safe
  physical and social environment.
• Learners must get a feeling that they are valued
  even if they may fail at a given task.
• In an atmosphere which tolerates and respects
  diversity, learning is made easier.

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Differentiated of Curriculum

• It is about allowing the diverse needs of all
  learners to access the same curriculum through
  modification, special equipment resources or
  facilities special teaching techniques.
• Inclusive curriculum demands the common goal
  defined for all learners (Knowledge, skills and
  values) to be acquired
• Children are allowed to learn at
• different rates,
• with different materials, and with different
  methods,
• based on various learner characteristics such as
  gender, culture, needs, interests, abilities, and
  preferred learning styles.

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Teaching Strategies

• Adaptations or modifications of instructional
  strategies refer to the changes in the way
  teacher provides instruction.
• The teacher should be aware of different learning
  styles , backgrounds, experiences and learning
  needs of learners when planning the lesson and
  using different teaching methods.
• Effective teaching means combining different
  teaching and learning strategies.

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Cont

• different teaching approaches and groupings
  focus on learning from being teacher-directed
  towards being Learner- centered can occur.
• This promotes the development of children as
  independent, self-directed learners and releases
  the teacher to attend to the needs of individual
  children and groups.
• Teachers widely used of teaching methods (e.g.
  co-operative group teaching, cooperative
  learning, self-directed learning etc.) are well
  prepared to make a classroom a lively,
  challenging and friendly place to learn.

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Individualized education plan

• An individual education programme (IEP)
• Is a tool that school professionals use to
  provide educational services tailored to the
  needs of learners with SEN
• Assures that the educational needs of a
  particular learner, rather than those of a group
  of learners, are addressed.
• Is a way of designing individual educational
  goals that would help learners access and
  progress in the general curriculum

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Cont

• Why IEP is needed?
• IEP is needed
• For learners to assure their right to education
• For teachers and specialists to deliver
  effective programmes to SWSN
• To overcome barriers to learning which cannot be
  overcome by regular classroom strategies
• To prevent repetition and dropout

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Assistive Aids

• Special aids and equipment to maximize the
  function of individuals with particular
  impairments
• obvious examples are
• glasses to help children see better
• crutches and wheelchairs to help them move around
  school more easily and
• hearing aids help children to hear better
• Orthosis (device that enhance partial functioning
  of a body part)
• Prosthesis (artificial replacement of missing
  body part arm, leg)

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Chapter Two Identification and Assessment of
Students with Special Needs

• Identification
• Identification is detecting the existence of
  certain impairment or disorder that adversely
  affect learning.
• Why identification?
• The outcome of learning is more than appropriate
  curriculum, teachers subject matter knowledge
  rather it is depending on the interaction of many
  factors. So, teachers should be aware of such
  factors that influence learning and ask the
  following question related to students
  achievement, ability or skill in different area
• Academic area(reading, writing, speaking)
• Overall achievement
• General Intelligence (ability to learn
  understand)
• Socio-emotional Status (interaction with
  teachers, peers).
• Existence of disability

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Cont

• Techniques of Identification
• Observation -of two type
• non-systemic (informal) observation
• Simply watching children and note the behavior,
  characteristics and personal interaction
• Systemic Observation
• Teachers focus on certain precisely defined
  behavior and measure its frequency ,duration and
  magnitude. It is more detailed investigation than
  identification.
• It can be defined as a global term for observing
  ,gathering recording and interpreting information
  to make instructional decision about the student

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Cont

• Assessment is the process of collecting evidence
  of student learning in order to draw an inference
  about an individuals (or a groups) current
  level of attainment.
• The fundamental purpose of assessment and
  reporting is to improve student learning. This is
  true at the system, school and classroom level.
• More specifically, assessments of children may be
  used for determining the level of functioning of
  individual children, guiding instruction, or
  measuring functioning at the program, community,
  or state level.

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• Besides, the First purpose of an assessment
  should guide assessment decisions.
• Secondly, assessment activity should be conducted
  within a coherent system of medical, educational,
  and family support services that promote optimal
  development for all children.
• Students with disabilities can participate in
  assessments in three ways
• Participate in assessments in the same way as
  other students.
• Participate in assessments with accommodations.
• Participate in alternate assessments developed
  for students who cannot participate in general
  assessments even with accommodations.

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Cont

• ASSESSMENT should be
• comprehensive
• continuous
• multidisciplinary
• for developing intervention packages.

72
Cont

• Comprehensive assessment must be comprehensive in
  that it investigates different dimensions and
  areas of a child with disability (e.g., other
  coexisting conditions, family history,
  intelligent testing, medical examination, etc)
  than single aspect.
• Continuous assessment is not a one shoot process
  rather it needs intensive and ongoing procedures
  till a holistic and valid result is obtained
  about the child.
• Multidisciplinary once a child has been referred
  for special education, a comprehensive assessment
  must be conducted by a multidisciplinary team.

73
Cont

• The multidisciplinary team consists of school
  psychologist, speech and language pathologist,
  occupational therapist, medical
  specialist/physician, classroom teacher, parent,
  etc.
• Techniques of Assessment
• Interview
• Observation
• Check list
• Portfolio
• Test(CR-test, Standardize test like Intelligence
  test)

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Screening, Identification and Assessment
Processes at School Level

• Screening, Identification and Assessment Process
  at school is an ongoing process, which starts
  with the educators contact with the learner and
  the information obtained from this process should
  provide feedback on the learning process and by
  identifying strength and barrier to learning.
• By the end of the first six months it is expected
  that the educator, in consultation with relevant
  stakeholders (e.g. parents, HOD) should have an
  initial impression on what to report to parents,
  colleagues etc.

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• the educator must have a deeper understanding of
  the barrier and the support needed in other words
  s/he must perform detailed assessment.
• Educators should identify learners who
• are in need of an enriched(supplementary)
  programme
• are in need of a support programme
• need diagnostic help in specific aspects of a
  Learning Programme
• have a learning barrier
• are over-aged
• have problems because there is a mismatch between
  home language and the language of teaching,
  learning and assessment
• have physical disabilities, e.g. vision, speech,
  etc
• have health problems, e.g. illnesses, hunger, etc
  
• have problems with emotional stability due to
  harassment, violence, etc.
• do not attend school regularly
• show signs of abuse or neglect

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Types of Assessement

• There are two types of assessment Formal and
  Informal way of assessment in the process of
  screening and identification process of
  individuals with disabilities.
• Formal assessment A systematic and structured
  means of collecting information on student
  performance that both teachers and students
  recognize as an assessment event.
• These types of tests are mainly focuses on
  standardized tests like standardized aptitude and
  achievement tests. The standardized tests when
  used with special- education students might not
  be appropriate and could raise unrealistic
  expectations.
• Informal assessment A means of collecting
  information about student performance in
  naturally occurring circumstances, which may not
  produce highly accurate and systematic results,
  but can provide useful insights about a childs
  learning.
• In many aspect implementation of classroom based
  assessment is effective in screening out of
  students with special needs.

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• CLASSROOM BASED DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENTS These
  teacher-made assessments are designed to give a
  clearer picture of learner performance and the
  areas of need for intervention.
• Some of these strategies are presented as follow.
• PROFILES
• A comprehensive, up-to-date profile should give
  the educator a holistic picture of the strengths,
  weaknesses, opportunities and threats, which have
  a major impact on the learners performance.
• The profile should also reflect the knowledge,
  skills, attitudes and values and the
  socio-economic environment of the learner.
• Information from school records, parents, and
  other adults, and the educators own records of
  personal observations and interpretations, all
  form part of the learner profile.
• PORTFOLIOS
• Portfolio assessment is an ongoing means of
  obtaining information from the learners work
  samples.

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• INTERVIEWS
• Educators arrange one-to-one interviews with
  parents, learners and other adults to gather
  information, which could assist her/him in
  uncovering and minimizing the barriers to
  learning as experienced by the learner.
• Educators, parents and learners are central in
  assessment processes

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Assessment principles

• 1. Assessment should be relevant.
• Assessment needs to provide information about
  students knowledge, skills and understandings of
  the learning outcomes. That is, it needs to be
  directly linked to the standards.
• 2. Assessment should be appropriate.
• Assessment needs to provide information about the
  particular kind of learning in which we are
  interested. This means that we need to use a
  variety of assessment methods because not all
  methods are capable of providing information
  about all kinds of learning. For example, some
  kinds of learning are best assessed by observing
  students some by having students complete
  projects or make products and others by having
  students complete paper and pen tasks.

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• 3. Assessment should be fair.
• Assessment needs to provide opportunities for
  every student to demonstrate what they know,
  understand and can do.
• Assessment must be based on a belief that all
  learners are on a path of development and that
  every learner is capable of making progress.
• Students bring a diversity of cultural knowledge,
  experience, language proficiency and background,
  and ability to the classroom.
• They should not be advantaged or disadvantaged by
  life experiences, abilities, or gender
  differences that are not relevant to the
  knowledge, skills and understandings that the
  assessment is intended to address.
• Students have the right to know what is assessed,
  how it is assessed and the worth of the
  assessment.
• Assessment will be fair or equitable only if it
  is free from bias or favoritism.

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• 4. Assessment should be accurate.
• Assessment needs to provide evidence that
  accurately reflects an individual students
  knowledge, skills and understandings.
• That is, assessments need to be reliable or
  dependable in that they consistently measure a
  students knowledge, skills and understandings.
  (This means that we need to use a variety of
  assessment strategies to give students multiple
  opportunities to demonstrate their learning in a
  range of contexts and to make sure that the
  inferences we draw about a students level of
  attainment are not influenced by the choice of a
  specific assessment task).
• Assessment also needs to be objective so that if
  a second person assesses a students work, they
  will come to the same conclusion as the first
  person.
• Assessment will be fair to all students if it is
  based on reliable, accurate and defensible
  measures.

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• 5. Assessment should provide useful information.
• The focus of assessment is to establish where
  students are in their learning. This information
  can be used for both summative purposes (the
  assessment of learning), such as the awarding of
  a grade, or formative purposes to feed directly
  into the teaching and learning cycle (assessment
  for learning). Assessment information that is
  useful for formative purposes needs to focus in
  part on the depth of a students understanding,
  not just on the accumulation of knowledge.
• That is, it needs to focus on a students
  conceptual understandings. Assessment tasks which
  focus on Intellectual Quality, including deep
  knowledge and understanding and higher order
  thinking, and which provide elements of Quality
  Learning Environment such as explicit criteria
  and high expectations, assist in informing
  ongoing teaching and learning.
• Assessment of this kind identifies strengths and
  weaknesses, and provides detailed diagnostic
  information about how students are thinking. The
  collection of evidence of this kind may require
  opportunities for students to explain in their
  own words or pictures their understandings of the
  material they are learning.

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• 6. Assessment should be integrated into the
  teaching and learning cycle.
• Assessment needs to be an ongoing, integral part
  of the teaching and learning cycle. It must allow
  teachers and students themselves to monitor
  learning. From the teacher perspective, it
  provides the evidence to guide the next steps in
  teaching and learning. From the student
  perspective, it provides the opportunity to
  reflect on and review progress, and can provide
  the motivation and direction for further
  learning.
• 7. Assessment should draw on a wide range of
  evidence.
• Assessment needs to draw on a wide range of
  evidence. A complete picture of student
  achievement in an area of learning depends on
  evidence that is sampled from the full range of
  knowledge, skills and understandings that make up
  the area of learning. An assessment program that
  consistently addresses only some outcomes will
  provide incomplete feedback to the teacher and
  student, and can potentially distort teaching and
  learning.

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• 8. Assessment should be manageable.
• Assessment needs to be efficient, manageable and
  convenient. It needs to be incorporated easily
  into usual classroom activities and it needs to
  be capable of providing information that
  justifies the time spent.

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Assessment of different disabilities

• Different disabilities have their own
  identification procedures and characteristics. In
  the following part, we will discuss about
  assessment mechanisms of four disability types
  and their techniques.
• 1. Hearing Impairment
• Different people define the term hearing
  impairment differently. Pasonella and Carat
  (1981), from legal point of view, define hearing
  impairment as a generic term indicating a
  continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound,
  which includes the sub-classifications of the
  hard of hearing and deaf.

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• A. Hard-of-hearing is used to describe persons
  with enough residual hearing to use hearing
  (usually with hearing aid) as a primary modality
  for acquisition of language and communication
  with others. It usually ranges between 26 dB to
  70 dB. The condition can adversely affect the
  childs educational performance to some extent.
• B. Deaf is used to describe persons whose sense
  of hearing is non-functional for ordinary use in
  communication with or without a hearing aid. The
  hearing loss is usually above 70dB. It is so
  severe that the person is impaired in processing
  linguistic information which adversely affects
  the educational performance.

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• Identification and Assessment of Hearing
  Impairment
• There are several symptomatic behaviors that are
  used to determine whether a hearing impairment
  may be present.
• According to the literature reviewed by Tirussew
  (2000), several assessment techniques are used to
  screen a child with hearing problems. Among
  others the most practical ones include
• Careful observation of main symptoms of hearing
  loss mentioned below.
• Studying the causes of loss and its consequences
  in collaboration with parents
• Distraction tests, introducing a sound source
  behind and to either side of the child. The
  childs response may be an obvious turning of the
  head
• Cooperation testing where testing is done as a
  game. The child is encouraged to respond to
  simple instructions, for instance putting a ring
  on a peg.

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• Screening tests in schools could be carried out
  in relatively short time. Symptomatic behavior
  observation or pure-tone tests may be undertaken.
  All the children in school may be quickly tested
  and doubtful cases are referred to specialist
  clinic.
• Some behavioral indications and warning signs of
  a possible hearing impairment that teachers and
  parents should be alert to in their everyday
  situations include the following.
• Inattention, restlessness, distraction of
  others, more responsiveness in quiet conditions.
• Complaints of earache, popping ears or a visible
  discharge from the ear.
• Giving inappropriate answers to questions
  watching and following what other children do.
• Louder or softer voice than is usual.

89
Cont

• For people with a considerable hearing loss, the
  basic approach to communication are Oral, manual
  and total communications.
•  Oral method (Speech communication) Oral
  languages are transmitted and received through
  oral and auditory modalities, respectively.
• Sign language is a formal, socially agreed on
  rule-governed symbol system that is generative in
  nature. Sign language is a language in its own,
  with its own linguistic rules and patterns.

90
Cont

• Total communication is a method of communication
  for hearing impaired that presents the
  simultaneous or combined methods of signs, finger
  spelling, speech (lip) reading, speech and
  auditory amplification at the same time.

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2. Education of Children with Communication
Disorder

• Communication disorders fundamentally include
  disorders of speech and language. Communication
  is the broadest of the three terms, includes both
  speech and language. Communication also includes
  cues such as intonation, pace of speech, and
  stress (emphasis), as well as nonverbal
  information such as gestures, facial expressions,
  and eye contact.

92
Cont

• Language can be defined as a socially shared code
  or system of conventions that represents and
  expresses ideas through symbols and rules. All
  language is communication, but not all
  communication involves language. Language can be
  spoken, written, or signed.
• Speech is a particular type of language. Speech
  refers to language that involves the coordination
  of oral-neuromuscular movement to produce sounds.

93
Cont

• There are three types of speech disorders
• Articulation disorders account for the majority
  of speech disorders. The child is unable to
  produce sounds appropriate for his or her age.
  Articulation disorders also include substitution
  of a sound for instance, saying th for s,
  omitting a sound ("han" for "hand"), or
  distorting a sound ("sip for ship")

94
Cont

• Fluency disorders are interruptions in the flow
  of speech. These can include difficulties with
  the rate, rhythm, or repetition of sounds,
  syllables, words, or phrases.
• Stuttering is, perhaps, the most serious
  dysfluency (fluency disorder). Stuttering is
  characterized by a disruption in the flow of
  speech after age of six. It includes repetitions
  of speech sounds, hesitations before and during
  speaking and, or, prolongations of speech sounds.

95
Cont

• Voice disorders are impairment of the voice
  itself, and they affect the quality, pitch, or
  intensity of the persons speech. For example,
  students with voice disorders may sound hoarse
  all the time or speak too loudly.
• A language disorder is the impairment or deviant
  development of expression and, or, comprehension
  of words in context.

96
Cont

• Language form includes phonology, morphology and
  syntax application.
• Phonology the sound system of a language and the
  rules that cover sound combinations Eg. ahhh
  an x usually sounds like ks a ph sounds like
  f.
• Morphology the structural system for words and
  word construction in a language.
• Syntax the system in a given language for
  combining words to form sentences.

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Language function and Language content

• Pragmatics the ability to combine form and
  content to communicate functionally and in
  socially acceptable waysfor example, knowing
  when to say what to whom.
• Semantics the meaning of words and sentences in
  a language. Skill in semantics includes the
  ability to visualize or interpret what someone
  has said or what you have read and to understand
  it.

98
Cont

• Education of children with speech disorder in
  inclusive classroom
•   receive special instruction, most likely
  outside the regular classroom. , practice in
  understanding language rules or exercises to
  teach the child how to position his tongue while
  he says a sound. , Speech Language Pathologists
  (SLP) should use techniques which provide the
  child the opportunity to learn appropriate forms
  of behavior and communication

99
Cont

• Education of children with language disorder in
  the inclusive schooling.
• Help children with language disorders to improve
  language comprehension and production (e.g.,
  grammar, vocabulary, and conversation, and
  story-telling skills) .
• Help individuals with speech and language
  disorders and their communication partners
  understand the disorders to achieve more
  effective communication in educational, social,
  and vocational settings .

100

• Slowness in responding to simple verbal
  instruction, with frequent requests for
  repetition.
• Searching visually to locate a sound source or
  turning head to give one side an advantage.
• Needing to sit nearer a sound source that is
  usual or asking for volume on TV, tape or record
  player to be turned up
• Some irritability or typical aggressive outbursts
  more frequent behavioral upsets in school.
• Reluctance to participate in oral activity and
  little interest in following story.
• Failure to turn immediately when called by name
  unless other visible signals are given.
• Tiring easily, poor motivation, some stress signs
  such as nail-biting.
• Particularly difficulties in verbally related
  skills such as reading sound blending and
  discrimination and writing with better skills in
  practical areas.
• Speech limited in vocabulary or structure and use
  of gesture
• Best work in small group. 

101

• 3. Visual Impairment
• Visual impairment can be defined from different
  points of view medical (clinical), legal or
  educational perspectives. In this paper the term
  could be defined from educational perspective.
  From this perspective, it can be defined as any
  eye defect which hampers the educational
  performances of a child and entails some
  adaptations and modifications in various
  educational areas. In terms of its severity,
  visually impaired individuals are categorized
  into partially sighted (low vision) and blind.
• Taylor, Stenberg and Richards (1995) define the
  two terms, from the educational point of view as
  follows.
• Partially sighted learners are those having
  significant visual problems but still use their
  vision as their primary sense for learning.
• Blind learners are those whose visual impairment
  is so severe that they must rely on senses other
  than vision to function adequately.

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• Identification and Assessment of visual
  impairment
• To provide children with visual impairment with
  proper and prompt rudiments of knowledge,
  instructional processes that can fit and satisfy
  them, early detection is very essential. This
  helps understand their special needs well and
  start appropriate care on the right time .The
  following list of potential signs of visual
  impairment is given by Ysseledyke and Algozine
  (1995).
• Frequently experiences red or inflamed eyes
• Eye movements are jumpy or not synchronized
• Experiences difficulty moving around
• Experiences difficulty reading small print.
• Experiences difficulty identifying small details
  in pictures or illustrations
• Frequently complains of dizziness after reading a
  passage or completing an assignment involving
  vision.

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• Tilts head to achieve better focus
• Uses one eye more than the other for reading or
  completing other assignments.
• Lacks interest in lights and visual stimuli
• Rubs eyes frequently
• Shows unusual clumsiness
• Has poor eye-hand coordination
• Complains of headaches or eye infections
  frequently

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• Furthermore, Gearheart, Weishan and Geartheart
  (1988), mention some additional the following
  symptoms.
• Excessive amount of rubbing eyes
• Losing place during reading
• Unusual facial expressions and behaviors
• Achievement disparity between expected and actual
  
• Eye discomfort i.e. burning , itching or
  scratching
• Holding reading material at an inappropriate
  distance
• Discomfort following close visual work
• Difficulty with distance vision
• Blurred or double vision
• Reversals of letters, syllabus or words
• Letter confusion, of similar shapes (eg. 0 and a
  )
• Poor spacing in writing and difficulty in
  staying on the line