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Language Processing

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Title: Language Processing


1
Language Processing and Comprehension
  • Revised for Syllabus of 2014

2
Consider the following
  • What is more complicated Language or
    Mathematics?

3
Consider this
  • School children differ in their ability to master
    math and yet
  • At an even earlier age (as toddlers and
    preschoolers), almost all children learn to
    speak!
  • Does that mean Math is more complicated?

4
Now, consider this
  • An average computer today can perform the most
    complicated mathematical calculations with ease
    and yet
  • Despite years of research, no computer has as yet
    learnt to speak! (i.e., use language in the
    same way that humans use it)!
  • Does this mean language is more complicated?

5
And this
  • To use math, you need to learn rules to solve a
    set of problems
  • To use language, you need
  • not to recognize a set of sentences, but rather
  • to learn a set of rules for constructing and
    understanding novel sentences.
  • Can you understand this

6
  • Subhash Chandra Bose invaded India with an army
    of purple gorillas in 2007, by flying over the
    Alps when the black mountains rose and broke
    their wings, and Bose and his army were forced to
    land in the snow, nursing their wings. But they
    were up in a thrice and once they crossed the
    green desert, they fought the pink elephants that
    were guarding the borders and took everyone
    captive till the Pakistani government paid a
    ransom of rotten tomatoes to set India free!

7
Welcome to a world where a word is worth a
thousand pictures
  • Welcome to the world of language!

8
Topics Covered
  • Part 1 Nature and Structure
  • Nature of human language
  • Structure of human language theory of
    constituent processing, Chomskys
    transformational grammar, word organization,
    factors affecting comprehension
  • Part 2Language Comprehension
  • Understanding spoken language processes
    involved in speech perception
  • Reading Process, theories of word recognition,
    factors affecting reading comprehension

9
Topics Covered
Reading
10
Background
  • The area of cognitive science that examines how
    people learn and use language to communicate
    ideas is called psycholinguists.
  • Cognitive science itself is an interdisciplinary
    field that draws on research from psychology,
    computer science, neuroscience, philosophy,
    linguistics to name a few.

11
Background
  • Psycholinguistics is also interdisciplinary and
    draws from research in many areas but primarily
    in psychology and linguistics.
  • Within Psychology, it draws from research in
    attention, perception, memory, thinking, etc
  • In linguistics, it draws from research in
    phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, etc
  • It also draws from computer science and
    neuroscience.

12
Definition
  • Psycholinguistics is an area that studies the
    psychological processes involved in the use of
    language - both production and comprehension

13
Activity
  • Repeat after me Heads, shoulders, knees and
    toes!
  • Tell me your mothers name!
  • Who is sitting next to you?
  • What colour is your footwear?
  • Notice how easily you were able to understand my
    instructions and say what is in your mind !

14
Background
  • Language is used with little difficulty by
    everyone who learns it at an early age.
  • Thus, language processing, comprehension, and
    production seem extremely simple.
  • People are remarkably efficient in understanding
    and producing language
  • However, though we use language with ease, it is
    one of the most complicated of cognitive
    phenomena! ?

15
Background
  • At the heart of psycholinguistics are two
    questions
  • What knowledge of language is needed for us to
    use language (tactic i.e. knowing how to speak
    or explicit i.e., knowing what processes are
    involved in speech?) and
  • What cognitive processes are involved in the
    everyday use of language
  • We shall try to answer these questions in the
    next two units!

16
Background
  • Language appears to be universal across all human
    societies.
  • In the 1970s, a stone age tribe, the Tasaday, was
    found in a remote part of the Philippines. The
    tribe had been removed from any contact with the
    rest of the world.
  • Yet they spoke a language
  • Moreover, others could learn their language, and
    they could learn other languages.

17
Background
  • So, it seems that despite the apparent diversity
    of human languages, all societies use language in
    similar ways, and any language can be learned by
    anybody.
  • Therefore, there must be certain underlying
    similarities across all languages ever invented
    or yet to be invented!
  • Deep freeze, Blazing, blue star for way out!

18
Language and Communication
  • Nature of Human Language

19
Language and Communication
  • Language is not communication
  • Language is a tool
  • Other modes of communication
  • All species have forms of communicating
  • Many systems are very elaborate

20
Language and Communication
  • Wolves - emotions - position of ears, lips, and
    tail
  • Primates and cats -facial expressions - fear,
    aggressiveness
  • Birds - songs - sexual readiness, possession of
    territory
  • Honeybees - dance - direction, distance and
    quality of honey

21
Language and Communication
  • So what is language?
  • Hockett (1960, 1961) - differences between
    language and communication.

22
Language and Communication
  • Use of speech
  • Arbitrary association
  • Naming
  • Semanticity
  • Structure dependence
  • Displacement
  • Generativeness
  • Expressive power

23
Use of Speech
  • Not vocalizations, but speech
  • Do species other than humans use speech?
  • Does language really need speech?
  • What about
  • Braille
  • Sign language
  • So not a critical feature

24
Arbitrary Association
  • Human language involves arbitrary relations
    between words and what the words refer to
  • Buffalo, Bu-fe-low
  • Why not big-fellow, or marshmallow or owaka?
  • A rose by any other name
  • Some animal systems involve similar arbitrariness
    e.g., bird songs
  • So, not a critical feature

25
Naming
  • Think of a friend
  • Humans depend heavily on naming
  • Almost as if to say if we can name something, we
    have understood it, as if a name conveys all
    there is to know about the object!
  • Monkeys warning signs use similar naming, but
    range is limited
  • Whether naming is critical or not is debated

26
Semanticity
  • Use of symbols (words) to identify everything
  • Language depends heavily on this
  • Semanticity is a critical feature of human
    language

27
Structure Dependence
  • ships works he with v/s he works with ships
  • Some forms of animal communication follow
    sequence but it is merely that a sequence
  • Human language depends highly on structure parts
    of speech
  • Structure dependence is a critical feature

28
Displacement
  • Communicate events from the past as well as about
    the future
  • when I grow big like you, you will become small
    like me and I will give you a bath
  • Intentions and imaginations - Cheshire cats,
    walking and talking playing cards, a flood of
    tears
  • Displacement is a critical feature

29
Generativeness
  • By reconstructing a finite set of basic units,
    new messages can be regularly and frequently
    constructed
  • Generativeness is a definite critical feature
  • I LOVE ONLY YOU
  • See how this can change

30
  • I love only you
  • (and none other)
  • Only I love you
  • (and no one else does)
  • I only love you
  • (and nothing more, so dont expect ever lasting
    commitment, love is not worth the bondage)
  • I love you only
  • (I will have to leave you anyway because I have
    to marry this other person, but dont worry, I
    will always love you)

31
Expressive Power
  • Communicate an amazing range of thoughts
  • When I grow up, I will be a monster!
  • Monkey rraup, ?? I see an eagle hey, there
    is danger about in the form of an eagle.
  • But that is the limit of the communiqué.

32
Expressive Power
  • The monkeys communication system does not extend
    to other associations such as I dont see an
    eagle, or Thank heavens it wasnt an eagle or
    Good gracious, was that an eagle, it looked more
    like a pterodactyl, or are you afraid of
    eagles?, or That was some huge eagle that we
    saw yesterday wasnt it, or even I hope the
    eagle doesnt come this way tomorrow!

33
Language and Communication
  • Nor can the bee dance to talk about the lovely
    sights he saw in his search for nectar!
  • Expressive power is a critical feature
  • But EP is highly dependent on generativeness,
    thus in itself, so may not be such a critical
    feature - debated

34
Language Acquisition Device
  • Why cannot parrots, dolphins, etc use language?
  • Chomsky and others language is species-specific
  • Chomsky humans have an LAD which is lacking in
    other species other species can not be taught
    language

35
Language Acquisition Device
  • Keith and Cathy Hayes attempted to train a chimp
    name Vicki to pronounce English words in the
    1940s
  • In the 1960s, David Premack developed and tried
    to teach Sarah (a chimp) an artificial language
    where coloured plastic shapes stood for words
    fixed on a magnetic board

36
Language Acquisition Device
  • Around the same time (1960s), Terrace used a
    chimp called Nim Chimpsky to learn American Sign
    Language (ASL)
  • Beatrice and Allen Gardner tried to teach a chimp
    named Washoe to use ASL, also in the 1960s
  • Savage-Rumbaugh (1994) taught a bonobo called
    Matata language using a lexigram, her son Kanzi
    actually learnt it.

37
Language Acquisition Device
  • But while the chimpanzees learning was certainly
    impressive, it in no way apes the speed or
    flexibility that human children exhibit while
    learning language.
  • Moreover, there is no evidence that these chimps
    used anything like sentences.
  • Thus, only humans are capable of language

38
Summary
39
Functions of Language
  • Nature of Human of Language

40
Functions of language
  • Imagine a situation when language in any form was
    forbidden!
  • Language is virtually an essential part of every
    social interaction.
  • And since social interaction is the most common
    action in life, language is an essential part of
    life.

41
Functions of language
  • Usually, when we speak, we are also doing
    something.
  • For e.g.,
  • I bet India will come back with at least two
    golds this Olympics
  • I will return that book tomorrow

42
Functions of language?
  • Speech acts (Austin, 1962 Searle, 1969).
  • Three most common types of speech acts correspond
    to the three types of sentences
  • declarative,
  • question,
  • Imperative?

43
Functions of language
  • Helsinki is the capital of Sweden.
  • Do you think it will rain today?
  • Give me that carton of grape juice!
  • Sometimes, the boundaries are blurred and
    intended or required action determines the speech
    act (or type of sentence)
  • Can you shut the door?

44
Functions of language
  • Whatever the purpose, speech acts almost always
    require that information be conveyed to the
    listener.
  • good heavens, that is such a dusty table,
  • oh dear, its time to feed the baby)
  • So the essential function of language is that it
    be able to convey information

45
Definition
  • Speech acts communicate the required or intended
    action to the listener

46
Summary
47
(No Transcript)
48
Structure of Human Language
  • Language

49
The Structure of Language
  • Phonemes
  • Phonology
  • Morphemes
  • Morphology
  • Words
  • Phrases
  • Sentences
  • Syntax or Constituent Structure rules that
    govern organization of all the above!

50
The Structure of Language
51
The Structure of Language
  • But a sentence that is syntactically correct is
    not enough to make good conversation
  • mangoes wishing tape
  • It should be semantic convey meaning

52
The Structure of Language
  • Finally, a conversation is not merely an exchange
    of meaningful information.
  • In fact, social rules dictate the type of
    conversations that may or may not take place.
  • These are called pragmatics the social aspects
    of language that govern most social interactions!
  • For e.g., you may not say will you shut up to
    your teacher, no matter how tired or bored you
    are!

53
Definition
  • The study of how language sounds are produced and
    comprehended is Phonology
  • The study of how syllables are created and
    comprehended is Morphology

54
Definition
  • The study of how words are organized is Syntax
  • The study of meaning of language is Semantics
  • The study of the social rules that govern
    language is Pragmatics

55
Summary
56
Constituent Structure
  • Structure of Human Language

57
Constituent Structure
  • As you read this sentence you must combine
    the various phonemes, morphemes, words, and
    phrases together, decode the meanings of each
    individual constituent, and the combinations,
    to understand what the sentence means.

58
Constituent Structure...
  • Understands sounds like m e t y o r
  • Meaning of words like your, met, mother, mall,
    yesterday
  • Meaning of the phrases and the meaning of the
    whole sentence.
  • A lot of cognitive work?
  • Yes, but your brain manages to decode in
    milliseconds!

59
Constituent Structure
  • A constituent is a phrase or basic unit of the
    sentence, usually containing more than one word,
    but less than an entire sentence.
  • As a rough guide, a constituent is a group of
    words that can be replaced by a single word
    without a change in function and without doing
    violence to (without violating) the rest of the
    sentence (Clark Clark, 1977)

60
Nature of Constituents
Look at the following sentences and arrange them
into natural groups i.e., group together words
that seem to belong together
  1. The young woman carried the heavy painting
  2. The kind-hearted boy helped his new friend across
    the pond
  3. Students who remember well will be more active in
    class

61
Nature of Constituents
  • Now the sentence the young woman carried the
    heavy painting could be broken down into two
    major parts young woman and carried the
    painting.
  • We could easily replace the constituent young
    woman with a single word and not change the
    meaning of the sentence replace with
    Mruganayani, teenager, student and the meaning
    would not change!

62
Nature of Constituents
63
Nature of Constituents
  • But woman carried the is not a constituent
  • Why do listeners or readers look at constituents?
  • Meaning of the word depends on its position in
    the phrase!

64
Nature of Constituents
  • painting is both a noun and a verb Nina was
    painting the cow
  • block
  • We are one block away from our destination
  • Anita stacked the last block in the tower
  • It was the block in the road that made us use
    the goat path
  • The location of the word determines its meaning!
    at least in Formal ENGLISH!

65
Definition
  • A constituent is a group of words, like phrases,
    that can be combined meaningfully and that convey
    a single idea in a sentence!

66
Activity, Read the paragraph and recite it to me
  • Winnie the pooh was sitting on the branch of an
    oak tree one morning when he heard a rumbling
    noise, and felt the branch go up and down.
    Really, it was distant thunder and a gust of
    wind, but Winnie the pooh thought it was
    something else. Help! Help! he cried, A
    hungry Heffalumps trying to rob my honey. Quick,
    somebody! Help me!

67
Constituents and Understanding
68
Summary
69
Structure of Human Language Strategies for
Identifying Constituents
70
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • Kimball (1973) proposed that listeners have
    developed a variety of strategies for dividing
    sentences into constituents.
  • One strategy concerns function words.
  • Function words are words that are very important
    for the structure of a grammatical sentence
  • (for example prepositions and conjunctions)

71
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • Kimball suggested that whenever listeners find a
    function word, they begin a new constituent
  • Pushpa said that Amit went to the store
  • Listeners would begin a new constituent when they
    hear the words that and to.
  • Now, try with this sentence
  • The dog and the cat slept on the sofa in the
    living room

72
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • Kimball proposed that listeners develop a second
    strategy to accompany the first
  • As soon as a function word indicates the
    beginning of a constituent, the listeners search
    for content words.
  • Content words are words that refer to persons,
    objects, and actions
  • (for example nouns and verbs)

73
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • A function word such as in alerts the listener
    to search for a noun.
  • The listener knows that a noun must come, no
    matter how many other words intervene
  • In the deep, dark, long-forgotten, spooky
  • You know that a noun must come eventually!

74
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • Clark and Clark (1977) point out other strategies
    such as the use of affixes.
  • Affixes are word parts that indicate the part of
    speech of the word.
  • (for example -er, -y, -ly, etc)
  • -er are typically nouns (painter, writer)
  • -y words are typically adjectives (pretty, nasty)
  • -ly are typically adverbs (finally, quickly)

75
Definition
  • Function words are words that determine the
    structure of language, they have to do with the
    surface structure or syntaxContent words are
    words that convey the idea through language, they
    have to do with semantics or deep structure

76
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • Thus, Clark and Clark suggest that listeners use
    these word parts to identify parts of speech.
  • Thus by knowing the parts of speech, listeners
    can identify constituents in terms of nouns,
    verbs and therefore noun phrases and verb phrases.

77
Strategies for identifying constituents
  • But these strategies are not fool proof they do
    not guarantee a solution and may also be
    misleading (clever, lonely, lily).
  • But they usually allow us to understand a
    sentence correctly.
  • That is why these strategies are called
    heuristics (rules of thumb used in solving
    problems).

78
Summary
79
Structure of Human Language Transformational
Grammar
80
Transformational Grammar
  • People usually think of a sentence as an orderly
    sequence of words.
  • Noam Chomsky (1957, 1965) proposed that there is
    more to a sentence that meets the eye
  • Chomsky argued that human language abilities
    could only be explained in terms of a complex
    system of rules and principles represented in the
    minds of the speakers.

81
Transformational Grammar
  • Chomsky devised a model of transformational
    grammar to convert underlying deep structure to
    surface structure of a sentence.
  • Surface structure is represented by the words
    that are actually spoken or written.
  • Deep structure is the underlying meaning of the
    sentence, something more abstract than the words
    themselves.

82
Transformational Grammar
  • Chomsky pointed out that two sentences may have
    very different surface structure, but very
    similar deep structureTrisha threw the
    ballThe ball was thrown by Trisha
  • In the example, the surface structure is very
    different in both sentences none of the words
    occupy the same position and some words that
    appear in one sentence do not appear in the other
    one at all!

83
Transformational Grammar
  • And yet, the meaning of both sentences are
    identical the deep structure is the same.
  • In contrast, two sentences may share the same
    surface structure, but very different deep
    structurePrabha is easy to pleasePrabha is
    eager to please
  • The sentences differ by a single word and yet
    mean two different things entirely!

84
Transformational Grammar
  • Further, sentences can have identical surface
    structures but very different deep
    structuresThe shooting of the hunters was
    terribleThe lamb was too hot to eatThey are
    cooking apples
  • One way of analysing the deep structure is to
    rewrite the sentence differently using rewrite
    rules

85
Transformational Grammar
  • For example they are cooking apples can be
    written in two ways

86
Transformational Grammar
87
Transformational Grammar
  • Chomsky proposed that people understand sentences
    by transforming the surface into a basic deep
    structure or kernel form.
  • They use transformational rules to convert
    surface structure to deep structure while
    understanding language.
  • And they use transformational rules to convert
    deep structure to surface structure while
    producing language

88
Transformational Grammar
  • Chomskys ideas inspired many studies during the
    60s and 70s.
  • Mehler (1963) found that people recalled kernel
    sentences such asthe biologist has made the
    discovery better than one such ashasnt the
    discovery been made by the biologist?

89
Transformational Grammar
  • The reason for this is that the first sentence
    does not require many transformations to be
    understood it is an active statement.
  • However, the second statement is a negative,
    passive question and requires many
    transformations to be understood i.e., brought
    to the active statement form

90
Transformational Grammar
  • However some research has not been in favour of
    Chomskys theory.
  • For e.g., a sentence such asthe cookies were
    smelled by John should be easier to understand
    (take lesser time to process and verify)
    thanthe cookies were smelled because the
    second sentence requires an additional
    transformation to drop the by John

91
Transformational Grammar
  • However, Slobin (1966) demonstrated that the
    second sentence took less time to verify!
  • So, there are exceptions
  • In general, psychologists support Chomskys
    notion of a distinction between surface and deep
    structure

92
Transformational Grammar
  • But the notion of a close correspondence between
    the number of transformations and psychological
    complexity has been met with scepticism
    (Prideaux, 1985 Tartter, 1986).
  • In other words, just because a sentence requires
    more transformations does not mean it is more
    difficult to understand.

93
Transformational Grammar
  • Chomskys more recent theories place less
    emphasis on transformations and more on
    grammatical information contained in the
    individual words (Chomsky, 1973, 1981 Wasow,
    1989).
  • For example, the word greet not only conveys
    information about the word but also specifies
    that the word must be followed by a noun.

94
Transformational Grammar
  • Defining the grammatical information is more
    useful in determining how the meaning is conveyed
    rather than by just determining the number of
    transformations that need to be made.
  • In fact, various factors affect the understanding
    of a sentence and some of these are dealt with in
    the next session.

95
Definition
  • Transformational grammar is the process through
    which surface structure can be transformed to (or
    broken down into) deep structure and deep
    structure can be transformed to (or used to
    create) surface structure

96
Summary
97
Language Comprehension Factors Affecting
Comprehension
98
Factors Affecting Comprehension
  • Research on transformational grammar also sparked
    an interest in the factors that influence
    understanding of sentences.
  • In general, certain types of sentences are more
    difficult to understand than others these
    include
  • Sentences with negative
  • Sentences that have a passive voice
  • Sentences that are ambiguous
  • We shall consider each of these in turn

99
Factors Affecting Comprehension - Negatives
  • Sentences that have negatives tend to be more
    difficult to comprehend.
  • For instance, this sentence that appeared in a
    newspaper article would be very difficult to
    comprehendALBANY The Assembly yesterday
    overwhelmingly approved a state Equal Rights
    Amendment free of revisions intended to restrict
    its influence on a womans right to an abortion

100
negatives
  • The sentence contains many implied negatives.
  • Sentences that have negative words (no, not) or
    has implied negative, always take more time to
    process than sentences that have affirmatives
    (Taylor Taylor, 1990)
  • A classic study by Clark and Chase (1972) studied
    this phenomenon.

101
negatives
  • Participants were asked to verify sentences such
    as thisStar is above plus. OR Plus
    is not above star.
  • In both cases, the statement is true, but
    participants responded more quickly and made
    fewer errors if the sentence was affirmative.

102
negatives
  • If a sentence with one negative can cause
    misinterpretation, what of sentences with two or
    three negatives such as thisFew people strongly
    deny that the world is not flat (Sherman, 1976)
  • The sentence has three negatives and is almost
    incomprehensible.
  • Understanding decreases as the number of
    negatives increase

103
negatives
  • Sherman (1976) presented participants with
    affirmative sentences and sentences with one,
    two, three, or four negatives.
  • He found that people understood every one of the
    affirmative sentences (100 accuracy) while
    people understood only 51 of sentences with four
    negatives (slightly better than guessing 50)

104
Factors Affecting Comprehension the passive
voice
  • Chomsky pointed out that active and passive voice
    forms may differ in surface structure but have
    the same deep structure
  • Active form is more basic and has very few words,
    but the passive form requires additional words.
  • Moreover, the active form is used seven times
    more often than the passive form in English

105
the passive voice
  • Further, some passive forms sound awkwardthe
    movie was watched by us
  • And there are no passive forms for certain
    wordsIshanvi is sleeping - convert that!
  • Verbs such as sleep, resemble, be, and cost do
    not have passive forms

106
the passive voice
  • Hornby (1974) asked people to judge whether a
    picture correctly represented a sentence.
  • People responded faster if the sentence was
    activethe girl is petting the catthan if it
    was passivethe cat is being petted by the girl

107
the passive voice
  • The active voice is definitely easier to
    understand
  • Earlier, the passive voice was highly recommended
    for scientific writing. Fortunately now, the
    current style manuals of many publications (such
    as APA) recommend using the active voice

108
Factors Affecting Comprehension ambiguity
  • As we discussed earlier, ambiguous sentences are
    more difficult to understand
  • There are three kinds of ambiguity and each has a
    different effect on understanding
  • The first is lexical ambiguity a word has two
    meaningstime flies like an arrow,but fruit
    flies like a banana.

109
ambiguity
  • The sentence is difficult to understand because
    the word flies has two meanings.
  • Many puns and riddles are based on lexical
    ambiguity
  • A second type of ambiguity is surface structure
    ambiguity in which words can be grouped together
    in more than one way

110
ambiguity
  • The only ones who volunteered are a few
    incompetent people like Nitin and you
  • In this sentence you can be competent or
    incompetent
  • A third type is deep structure ambiguity in which
    the essential logical relations between phrases
    can be interpreted in two ways
  • senator found drunk on Capitol steps

111
ambiguity
  • An ambiguous sentence is one with a single
    surface structure but two or more different deep
    structures.
  • Foss (1970) asked people to listen to ambiguous
    and unambiguous sentences. At the same time,
    they performed an additional task pressing a
    button every time they heard the sound b in a
    sentence.

112
ambiguity
  • RTs were longer when the participants were
    listening to an ambiguous sentence than an
    unambiguous one.
  • Foss reasoned that ambiguous sentences need more
    processing time and thus the capacity for other
    tasks is lesser
  • Theorists disagree about how listeners process
    ambiguous material

113
ambiguity
  • Some theorists favour the PDP and argue that when
    people encounter potential ambiguity, the
    activation builds up for all meanings of the
    ambiguous items
  • The degree of activation depends on the frequency
    of the meanings and the context (Simpson, 1984
    Simpson Burgess, 1985)

114
ambiguity
  • So in the example,
  • Pat took the money to the bank
  • All the different meanings of the word bank will
    be activated such as
  • But financial institution will be more highly
    activated than the other meanings of bank such as
    blood bank, river bank, etc

115
ambiguity
  • However, other theorists argue that context
    constrains the meaning activation at the very
    beginning itself
  • These theorists believe that only a single
    interpretation of the sentence that is most
    appropriate in the context will be activated
    (Glucksberg, 1986).

116
ambiguity
  • For instance, if the sentence
  • Pat received his monthly salary and he wanted to
    keep it safe
  • Preceded the sentence
  • Pat took the money to the bank
  • Then it is unlikely that the brain will waste
    time and energy in activating all the other
    meanings of the bank, when the meaning financial
    institution is obvious from the context

117
ambiguity
  • However, if the passage read
  • Pat took the money to the bank. He believed in
    the fable and wanted to make his wish come true.
    He wanted to drop the three coins in the river,
    repeating Annes name each time. Then she would
    consent to marry him.
  • The meaning of the word bank will remain
    ambiguous till the reader/ listener comes to the
    word river. In this event, obviously the PDP
    approach makes more sense.

118
ambiguity
  • So, much more research is required to determine
    which approach is more accurate.

119
Summary
120
? That is all!?
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