Traditional v Distributed Cognition in Memory Research

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Traditional v Distributed Cognition in Memory
Research

• Heather Brown
• Joanne Bower

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Contents

• Traditional approaches to memory research
• Their problems exemplar study
• An Alternative - Distributed Cognition
• Methodology utilised in traditional and
  distributed cognition approaches
• Technologies used in these approaches
• Research of the future
• Conclusions

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Traditional Memory Research

• Atkinson and Shiffrins modal model (1968)
• Memory as an information processing system

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The Modal Model Short term memory store

• Problems
• Neuropsychological Evidence Shallice and
  Warrington (1970)
• Grossly impaired auditory memory span does not
  effect Long term learning capacity

• Solution
• Baddeley and Hitch (1974) The Working Memory
  Model
• An attentional controlling system coordinates a
  number of subsystems

The Working Memory Model
Phonological Loop
Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
Central Executive
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The Modal Model Long-Term Learning

• Problem
• Laboratory studies suggest that transference into
  the long term memory store is not a direct
  function of time in Short term memory store
• Tulving (1966)

• Solution
• Craig and Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing
• Shallow processing
• Deep processing
• Rehearsal
• Maintenance
• Elaborative

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Traditional Memory Research

• Evidence from laboratory studies involves testing
  participants on simplistic and unrealistic tasks.
• Neuropsychological evidence shows extreme cases
  often with hard to localise problems.
• Research has typically focused towards the
  individual using evidence removed from context.

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The Misinformation Effect

• Memory can be affected by social and contextual
  factors that occur after the event.
• These factors can provide correct or incorrect
  information, which then becomes incorporated into
  memory for the actual event.
• This conflicts with traditional memory research
  which ignores the effect of such variables.

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Neural activity during encoding predicts false
memories created by misinformation (Okado
Stark, 2005)

• Used fMRI scanning to try to locate which areas
  of the brain were active during encoding and
  retrieval of event information and
  misinformation.
• Concluded that whether the event or
  misinformation was recalled depended on the level
  of activity during encoding. Greater activity
  during encoding lead to higher chance of recall.

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Technology and Methodology used in Okado Stark
(2005)

• Attempt to investigate social variables using
  fMRI data.
• fMRI is an example of technological advancement,
  however it reinforces the traditional
  individualistic approach to memory research.
• The advances in technology outside of the
  laboratory have increased the opportunity for all
  forms of distributed cognition.
• Therefore, fMRI scanning can only inform us
  regarding part of the constructive memory
  process.

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Okado Stark (contd)

• They Assume
• Although the events leading to encoding occurred
  in a social framework, encoding and retrieval
  occur within individual cognition.
• Memory is a constructive processes.
• The loss of social context that occurs within the
  fMRI scanner does not change the underlying
  cognitive processes of encoding and recall.

• However
• Cognition is not limited to the individual, but
  can be distributed across an environment.
• They discuss this process within an individual
  framework.
• The processes engaged in the fMRI scanner may
  differ from those experienced In the Wild
  (Hutchins, 1995).

Hutchins (2000) Rogers Scaife (1997)
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Bridging the Gap

• The assumptions made by Okado Stark (2005) are
  typical of those made throughout traditional
  memory research.
• However, frameworks for memory research should
  encompass both the cognitive and social aspects.
• Distributed cognition is one such approach.

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Distributed Cognition - Similarities to
traditional memory research

• Both seek to understand the organisation of
  cognitive systems including memory.
• Both acknowledge a role of individuals within
  this framework
• HOWEVER.

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Distributed Cognition Differences to
traditional research

• Distributed cognition does not limit cognition to
  the individual.
• Cognition can be distributed in three ways
• Socially (e.g. across co-witnesses to a crime)
• Over time (e.g. eyewitness memory can be
  influenced between the event and subsequent
  recall e.g. at a trial).
• Internally-externally (e.g. memory is influenced
  by external features such as news reports).
• Hutchins (2000)

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Methodologies used in memory research
Good control of variables Easy to Use Fast Good depth of data Good use of context Accounts for inter-relationship between variables
Traditional Lab-based experiments ? ? ?
Distributed cognition Ethnography ? ? ?
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Influence of technology on cognitive research

• Brain Scanning
• Allows good insight into individual brain
• However, cannot be used to study social
  distribution of cognition.
• Therefore it is good at studying ONE aspect of
  cognition.
• Video and audio taping
• Equipment has become smaller, easier to use and
  less intrusive.
• Enables exact recording of events for later
  analysis.
• Internet
• Can reinforce traditional studies (e.g.
  www.coghealth.com).
• Also necessitates a distributed approach (e.g. it
  is an additional medium for encountering
  misinformation).

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Influence of technology on everyday cognition

• Advancements communications technology e.g.
  Internet, MSN Messenger, text messaging and
  wireless communication.
• Advancements in memory and processing aids.
• Wider incorporation of technology into everyday
  life.
• Norman (1993)

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Research of the future

• Traditional approaches provide a useful starting
  point for memory research.
• However, their results may be best considered as
  one part of a larger body of investigation.
• Distributed cognition has evolved from
  traditional memory approaches.
• However, some of the current methodologies
  associated with this framework are not suitable
  for all aspects of memory research.

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Two possible Solutions

• Virtual Environments
• Allows utilisation of traditional experimental
  approaches.
• Enables ethnographic research to be conducted
  alongside traditional approaches (i.e. better
  control of variables but observation of natural
  processes).
• Connectionist modelling
• Used to represent information at an individual
  level and beyond.
• It has controllable predictive power, if accepted
  as a model rather than a mirror for reality.
• Rogers Scaife (1997)

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Conclusions

• Traditional memory research fails to account for
  important contextual variables.
• Distributed cognition provides an alternative,
  wider conceptual framework for memory research.
• Within this framework, traditional methodologies
  can be used in conjunction with developing
  techniques to provide a wider understanding of
  everyday cognition.
• Together, connectionist models and virtual
  environments can help to bridge the
  traditional-distributed cognition gap.

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References

• Atkinson RC and Shiffrin RM (1968) Human memory
  a proposed system and its control processes. In
  Gardiner JM (1976) Readings in Human Memory
  Meuthen Co Ltd
• Baddeley (2001) Human Memory Theory and practice
  revised edition psychology press
• Bick (1999) Coghealth www.coghealth.com Accessed
  April 2005.
• Craik and Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing A
  framework for Memory Research Journal of Verbal
  Learning and Verbal Behaviour 11 671-684
• Hutchins (2000) Distributed Cognition
  http//eclectic.ss.uci.edu/drwhite/Anthro179a/Dis
  tributedCognition.pdf Accessed April 2005.
• Hutchins (1995) Cognition in the Wild MIT Press
  Cambridge.

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References 2

• Norman (1993) Things that make us Smart Perseus
  Books USA.
• Okado Stark (2005) Neural activity during
  encoding predicts false memories created by
  misinformation. In Learning and Memory 12(1)
  pp3-11.
• Rogers Scaife (1997) http//www-sv.cict.fr/cotco
  s/pjs/TheoreticalApproaches/DistributedCog/DistCog
  nitionpaperRogers.htm Accessed April 2005.
• Shallice and Warrington (1970) Independent
  functioning of verbal memory stores A
  neuropsychological study Quarterly Journal of
  Experimental Psychology, 22, 261-273
• Tulving (1966) Subjective organisation and
  effects of repetition in mulit-trial free-recall
  learning. In Gardiner JM (1976) Readings in Human
  Memory Meuthen Co Ltd.