Jean Monnet Basic Course on European Integration: the diversity of Europe Unity and diversity in Eur

1
Jean Monnet Basic Course on European Integration
the diversity of EuropeUnity and diversity in
Europe from the perspective of sociology and
social policy Part 2

• Jan Kunz
• (jan.kunz_at_uta.fi)
• Department of Social Policy and Social Work

2
A reminder of last lecture

• There are many questions if we want to research
  unity and diversity at the European level
• How much diversity is healthy?
• How much unity does the European Union need?
• In which fields do we need unity / diversity?
• Background EU as a community in the making.

3
A reminder of last lecture

• 1. Focus on different topics
• What divides and what unites Europeans?
  Geography, religion, welfare states, gender
  equality, nationality and ethnicity, history, the
  end of colonialism, social movements, as well as
  political culture and values ? most of the fields
  offer uniting and dividing elements at the same
  time.

4
A reminder of last lecture

• A definition of Europe should be based on a
  combination of political culture and social
  values (European Social Model) and geography (to
  a certain extent) ? a clear definition, however,
  is difficult.

5
A reminder of last lecture

• From the perspective of social policy, the
  existence of different welfare-state models is a
  decisive factor in Europe (diversity)
• Nordic / Social Democratic model
• Continental / Conservative model
• Peripheral model
• Liberal / Anglo-Saxon model
• The models can be geographically assigned
• Different models in the new Member States of the
  EU
• ? European Social Model as uniting factor

6
A reminder of last lecture

• 2. Focus on regional trends
• The socio-economic situation in the European
  Union demography, households and families ?
  similar trends (unity) but strong regional
  differences (diversity). As a consequence
  flexible policy approaches are needed.

7
Schedule

• 02.03. 14-17
• The social, economic and cultural situation in
  the European Union (continued) (? focus on
  regional trends)
• Economic situation, employment and unemployment
• Poverty and social protection
• The situation of women
• Linguistic diversities
• Education
• Diversities in every day life
• Final considerations

8
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?
9
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Economic situation
• GDP per capita in 2003 in PPS, EU25 100
• Luxembourg (208) Ireland (131) Denmark (123)
  Austria (121) Netherlands (120) United Kingdom
  (119) Belgium (116) Sweden (115) France (113)
  Finland (111) EU15 (109) Germany (108) Italy
  (107) Euro-zone (107)
• EU25 (100) Spain (95) Cyprus (83) Greece (79)
  Slovenia (77) Portugal (75) Malta (73) Czech
  Republic (69) Hungary (61) Slovakia (51) Estonia
  (48) Lithuania (46) Poland (46) Latvia (42)
  Romania (30) Bulgaria (29) Turkey (27)
• Norway (149) Switzerland (129) Iceland (116)

10
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Although lower ranking countries (e.g. Greece,
  Portugal and Spain) have moved closer to the EU
  average (more unity), the extremes remain
  unchanged (diversity). Ireland is an exception
  in 1995 it was 6 percent below EU average in
  2001 19 percent above.

11
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Due to economic growth the living conditions of
  EU citizens have improved significantly (unity).
  Nevertheless, the recent economic and political
  developments (declining or stagnating growth
  rates, restructuring of social security systems)
  have increased the risk of poverty and social
  exclusion (inner societal diversities).

12
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Policy approaches structural funds (e.g. the
  Objective Regions 1 lagging behind 2
  structural problems 3 training and employment
  0 development of rural areas) restructuring
  of economies (economic reforms, promotion of
  entrepreneurship, innovation and knowledge-based
  economy), reduction of public deficits (Growth
  and Stability Pact ? discussion about rigidity
  background EMU).

13
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Employment
• In 2000, 166 million people were employed (EU15)
  (employment rate of 63.3 percent / 64.3 in 2002).
  That is 10 million more than in 1995.
  Nevertheless there were still 14 million people
  without work (8.2 percent of the labour force).
• The EU25 employment rate in 2004 (63.3 percent)
  was considerably lower than in the US (71.2
  percent) or in Japan (68.7 percent). Note one
  should be careful with comparisons.

14
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• In 2004, Denmark had the highest employment rate
  with 75.7 percent followed by the Netherlands
  (73.1) and Sweden (72.1), while Greece (59.4),
  Italy (57.6), Malta (54), Poland (51.7) and
  others were lagging far behind. (??)
• The figures clearly contradict claims that a
  strong welfare state is bad for employment
  rather the opposite seems to be the case.
  (Lisbon)

15
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Lisbon process big socio-economic restructuring
  project in order to turn the EU into the most
  competitive and dynamic knowledge based economic
  area in the world by 2010. Clearly defined goals
  in many fields, e.g. employment 70 percent
  (men), 60 percent (women), 50 percent (the
  elderly) by 2010. (Other targets are the early
  school leaver rate, child care, public debts,
  internet access in schools, etc.)

16
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Some comments
• Very ambitious project, which will not reach its
  goal (recent mid-term assessment).
• Various reasons for failure MS are in charge no
  binding policies Social Democratic project
  growth below expectations Stability Pact.
• Nevertheless, the objectives are important.
• We need a Europe which is more social and has the
  people in the focus. The Lisbon process is a good
  vision in this context. However, it currently
  seems that the social and environmental issues
  will be scaled down for the sake of the economic
  development.

17
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Sectors of employment in the EU (2000)
• 4 agriculture (EL 17 , A 13 , P 11 )
• 29 industry
• 67 services ( lt73 B, DK, NL, S, UK)
• Part-time employment has increased from 14
  percent (1991) to 18 percent (2000). (21 percent
  in DK and S 40 percent in NL). Fixed-term
  contracts increased from 11 to 13 percent (E 32
  percent) 61 percent of the contracts were for
  less than one year. Advantages / disadvantages?

18
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• ? These tendencies may help to reduce
  unemployment, but can also have negative
  consequences in the long-run (lacking investment
  in human capital).

19
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Older workers (55-64) With regard to the ageing
  society it is important to keep people as long in
  the job as possible. Employment rate in 2004 41
  percent (Lisbon strategy 50 percent by 2010).
  Sweden 69 percent, DK, P, EE and UK above 50
  percent. Older workers work more part time and
  are less likely to receive training. (??)

20
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Unemployment
• In 2003 the unemployment rate stood at 8 percent
  (1994 10.5 percent). Poland 19.2 percent, Spain
  11.3 percent Netherlands, Austria, Luxembourg,
  and Ireland less than 5 percent (comparable to US
  and Japan). There are more women (8.9 percent)
  unemployed than men (7.2 percent). Female
  unemployment is especially high in Greece, Spain
  and Italy. There are also great regional
  differences within the Member States. (??)

21
The economic situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Summary Unemployment is a serious problem in
  many EU countries (not all). Very often certain
  groups (the young, the old, women) are facing
  special problems, such as long-term unemployment
  and social exclusion. High unemployment has
  negative effects on the society as a whole as
  well.

22
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?
23
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• Poverty and social exclusion
• Income distribution In 2001 the richest 20
  percent of the EU population had a 4.4 times
  higher income than the poorest 20 percent. The
  gap was lowest in CZ (3.4), DK (3.4), FI (3.5) HU
  (3.4), AT (3.5), SE (3.4). The inequality was
  highest in PT (6.5), EE (6.1), EL (5.7), LV (5.5)
  and ES (5.5).

24
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• In 1999 15 percent of the EU citizens (about 56
  million people) were at the risk of poverty as
  their income was less than 60 percent of the
  national average. Half of the people have been
  three years or more in this situation. High risk
  of poverty single-parents with dependent
  children, young people living alone, old people
  living alone and women living alone. Very often
  poverty and social exclusion is caused by a lack
  of employment or low wages. (??)

25
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• Poverty and Health There is a positive
  correlation between education, income, quality of
  the employment on one hand and decent housing and
  good health on the other. Studies indicate health
  differences between different social groups as
  well as a widening gap between life expectancies
  of rich and poor people (intra societal
  diversity).

26
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• Results of a recent study among EU citizens aged
  16 and older
• 68 ? (very) good health
• 22 ? fair
• 10 ? (very) bad health
• Interesting in this context on the average 13
  percent of low income groups report about a bad
  health, while only 5 percent of high income
  groups do so.

27
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• The spending on social protection per capita
  ranged in 1998 from 8600 PPS in Luxembourg and
  7100 PPS in Denmark to 3100 PPS in Greece and
  Portugal. The EU average was about 5500 PPS
  (nevertheless comparisons are difficult). (??)
• The public redistribution effect (reduction in
  market income inequalities) is highest in Sweden,
  Finland and France (about 40 percent) and lowest
  in Portugal (about 20 percent).

28
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• The situation of women in Europe
• Despite all emancipation efforts and equality
  laws and directives (? e.g. gender mainstreaming)
  men and women in the EU are still facing
  considerable differences concerning their life
  situations (unity and intra societal diversity).

29
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• An important reason for that are structural
  disadvantages of women (e.g. no day care no care
  for the elderly no incentives by the social
  security system for women to take work) or
  cultural traditions and social values which
  discriminate women (e.g. families values the
  education of a girl not as important as the
  education of a boy). Naturally the former point
  is connected to the latter.

30
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• Some examples for the fact that women are still
  underrepresented in decision making positions and
  financially discriminated in Europe
• Political decision making in 2001 only 23
  percent of the politicians in national
  parliaments were women (9 percent in Greece and
  44 percent in Sweden). On the level of regional
  parliaments women held 29 percent of the seats
  (2001). Usually the share of women in the
  national government is higher than the share in
  the national parliament. (??)

31
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• Public administration (highest ranking
  positions) 40 percent in Sweden versus 10
  percent in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland,
  Italy and Luxembourg (European Commission 7.4
  and 11.3 on the two highest levels).
• 10.1 percent of all men employed were considered
  company managers in 2000 while the share for
  women was only 5.7 percent. The share of men is
  especially high in big and medium sized
  enterprises.

32
The socio-economic situation in the European
Union unity or diversity?

• On the average women in the private sector earn
  about 16 percent less per hour than men in the EU
  (1999) (positive exceptions Italy and Portugal
  where the payment of women is 91 respectively 95
  percent of the male wage). In the public sector
  women earn about 13 percent less. Same pay for
  same work is not the problem, but structural wage
  differences 33 percent of the women are working
  part-time (6 percent of men) ? less job
  promotions, less training. Sector related
  differences.

33
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?
34
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Linguistic diversities
• Important issue inhibits mobility and
  communication (? US). There are more than 70
  languages spoken in the EU (difficult to
  distinguish between languages and dialects) of
  which 20 are official EU languages. This
  diversity makes it difficult for example to
  present a common cultural front towards US
  influence. 93 percent of European films are only
  shown in their country of origin. Should every
  state introduce radical measures like in France
  (radio)?

35
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• ? Does it make sense to protect languages against
  foreign influences?
• Languages are nothing static. We understand many
  words from foreign languages. Many languages took
  over international terms (computer language).
  Globalisation / internationalisation and ICT make
  a difference (? speed), which is considered by
  some as a threat.

36
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• The preference of learning languages in Europe
  English, French, German, Spanish, Russian,
  Italian. Besides Latin, English is the only
  language which is spoken by more non-native
  speakers than native speakers. EU enlargement has
  strengthened the position of English as leading
  language in Europe. However, there are many
  people who question the role of English as a
  world language or leading language in the EU.

37
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Some examples for the dominance of the English
  language in Europe
• This course is held in English.
• Translation on the EU level is done via English ?
  linguistic simplification.
• European professionals lose the ability to
  express specialised content in their own
  language.
• 75 percent of films and TV programs shown in
  Europe are produced in English speaking
  countries.
• Over 300,000 students from Europe went to study
  in the US or Britain to learn the language (2002).

38
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• 700,000 people pay for language courses in the
  UK.
• Current laissez-faire in favour of English partly
  due to practical reasons (??).
• Some criticism
• This increasingly exclusive use of English as the
  language of the European elite, will only
  increase the democratic deficit and the gap with
  the European on the street. (The Parliament 16th
  of June 2002 33)
• Knowledge of English promotes the brain-drain
  towards the US, Canada, Australia.
• Are these assessments correct?

39
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Language, identity and culture are closely linked
  together. Language helps to create community
  feelings and solidarity. There is the fear that
  languages of smaller societies will get distinct
  ? Finland or Estonia Films are not translated,
  scientific literature exists often only in
  original language or English, hardly anyone
  outside the country learns the language. What
  about the future?

40
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Language is not only an important part of the
  collective consciousness but also an instrument
  of power (in extreme cases national education
  systems teach only the dominating language,
  non-acceptance of teaching in minority languages,
  bureaucracy, language to punish or suppress
  minorities).

41
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• There are many quarrels and fights over language
  in Europe e.g. Catalan and Basque in Spain
  German in northern Italy Flemish and French in
  Belgium Russian in eastern Europe. Minority
  languages are often suppressed in cases where the
  minorities are disliked or considered a threat.

42
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Education
• Some important points
• There is (still) a high level of educational
  diversity in Europe. There is a higher level of
  centralisation in France than in Germany. Germany
  has a higher level of regulation than in Finland.
  Some degrees are not accepted in other states
  (ECTS) or even in the same state (will be changed
  by the Bologna process see below).

43
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Some school systems are rather inflexible
  (Germany three school levels - general
  intelligence no learning progress / Finland -
  comprehensive schools). Important changes girls
  in schools 1968 more democratic education
  systems life long learning (unity). (??)
• Education reproduces classes, north-south
  divisions and gender roles.
• Schools helped to create nation states (promotion
  of common language, culture, religion, etc.). How
  can education help to create a European identity
  and promote tolerance, mutual understanding and
  common values (social justice, human rights,
  democracy, etc.)?

44
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Education is a key element of the Lisbon process
  ? reduction of early school leaver rate from 18.7
  percent in 2000 to 9.4 percent in 2010 internet
  access in all schools increase of RD and life
  long learning.
• During the last years teaching about EU-topics
  has increased. In addition exchange programs show
  positive results.

45
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Practical measures in the field of education to
  strengthen the European integration process
• Topics like economics or environmentalism should
  be broadened by a European perspective.
• Raising awareness of speaking languages.
• Encouragement of international contacts.

46
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Problems
• There have been attempts to create common history
  books, but they were not very successful.
• Education systems are in the tradition of
  national states ? reproduction of national
  culture instead of a European culture or
  identity.
• Labour force gets only prepared for the national
  or sub-national labour market ? low labour
  mobility.

47
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Bologna process (source Berlin declaration 2003)
  29 states agreed in 1999 to create a European
  Higher Education area by 2010 (not only EU).
• Background competitiveness, social cohesion and
  equality, public responsibility for education.
• Aim preservation of cultural richness and
  linguistic diversities promotion of
  co-operation identity, citizenship,
  employability.

48
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Measures two cycle system (BA/MA) by 2005
  mobility (students, academic and administrative
  staff) ECTS/common grades diploma supplements
  in a widely spoken European language students
  are full partners in higher education
  governance European modules, programs, and
  courses study periods abroad.

49
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Diversities in every day life
• Besides the diversities with regard to special
  fields (e.g. education, religion, gender
  equality, etc.) there is an enormous amount of
  diversities with regard to every day life. Every
  day life is closely connected to cultures. As
  cultures are diverse, every day life is diverse
  as well.
• When we think about everyday life, we can come up
  with many different national stereotypes (often
  based on national cultures) (??).

50
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• The knowledge about these diversities is
  essential for intercultural communication in
  Europe. However, understanding of every day life
  becomes more complicated due to the fact that the
  borders of cultures have become more fluent
  (globalisation/internationalisation) and we can
  create our own identities, which may be based on
  different cultures.

51
The cultural situation in the European Union
unity or diversity?

• Some diversities of every day life in Europe
• The importance of religion (stronger in the
  south, Poland, Ireland).
• Housing habits (moving out).
• Sports (ice hockey, skiing versus cricket and
  rugby).
• Leisure time (going out company to go out).
• Drinking (men in bar north drinks more due to
  fat food wine with food, etc.).
• Eating (lunch time company food/spices).
• ...

52
Final considerations
53
Final considerations

• The European Union is not a single society but
  rather a complex economic and political unit.
  There is nothing like a generally shared culture
  or common traditions. There are many differences
  concerning language, welfare state systems,
  education systems, the economic situation, social
  structures, etc. Hence diversities currently seem
  to be more characteristic for the EU than unity.
  However there are uniting factors as well, such
  as peoples wish for security, stability, and
  prosperity or a number of shared values (ESM).

54
Final considerations

• When talking about diversities, some points
  should be kept in mind
• Diversities are not necessarily something
  negative (e.g. culture in Europe is rich of
  content). They can teach us tolerance and
  openness they can help to look at problems form
  different angles and find alternative solutions.
• It is important that EU policies take diversities
  into account. While some should be tackled (e.g.
  unequal distribution of work, wealth or
  productivity) others should be preserved (e.g.
  languages, every day culture, local habits and
  traditions).

55
Final considerations

• The EU should not follow the policy of the nation
  states, which tried to level cultural diversities
  in order to create one society or nation
  (cultural and linguistic homogenisation of an
  otherwise diverse population).

56
Final considerations

• Diversities are nothing unusual within the Member
  States (e.g. economic and/or cultural diversities
  N/S GB, E/W Germany and N/S Italy or political
  diversities Spain/Basque region and
  France/Corsica) so they should not be overvalued
  in the case of the European Union. Unity in
  diversity is more than a slogan in this context.
• The acceptance of cultural diversities might lead
  to increasing support of the EU by societies
  which feel suppressed by individual nation states.

57
Final considerations

• With regard to the diversities the creation of a
  European identity will be a long process. It does
  not mean erasing other identities, but rather
  adding a new component. In order to reach this
  goal binding elements have to be strengthened. We
  need for example more solidarity, sustainability
  and tolerance - values, people can identify with
  and which help to create a consciousness of
  belonging to the EU. The way is the aim. We do
  not know where the way will lead us but it is
  worth going.

58
Final considerations

• How to create a European identity despite all
  diversities (in order to create solidarity and a
  feeling of belonging together)?
• Commission at least two foreign languages
  (starting as early as possible).
• Increasing level of exchanges (education,
  culture, town twinning) especially important
  with regard to the understanding of every day
  diversities.
• School curriculum should include European history
  and a focus on the EU as institution as well as
  contemporary problems in other Member States.

59
Final considerations

• The EU needs symbols common destiny (avoiding
  wars, preserving the environment, high level of
  welfare, social justice, etc.) common values
  (tolerance, freedom, solidarity, human rights,
  etc.) community of the people (high level of
  active citizen participation, a more democratic
  union, etc.).
• Presence of the EU on the global level (common
  foreign and defence policy).

60
Final considerations

• More cultural tourism (not mass tourism) ?
  supports tolerance and understanding promotes
  languages.
• More common sport events (that is disputed).
• Increasing level of marriages and business on the
  European level (EU diversity on a micro scale
  facing problems like culture, religion, etc. ?
  solutions have to be negotiated ? coexistence is
  possible).

61
Final considerations

• EU media plays a crucial role to create identity
  and a feeling of belonging together (living in a
  border region) ? regular EU relevant news section
  integrated in the national media (not just
  reporting bad news when the own country is
  concerned). Currently there are very few
  multilingual channels (DW, Eurosport, Euronews,
  Arte). Watched primarily by the elite. (EU was
  the birth place of modern media and is often
  associated with press freedom.)