Physical Education and sport in the ancient world'

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Physical Education and sport in the ancient world.

• China
• China in its past, was mainly an agrarian
  culture, as it still is today. Tradition and
  superstition controlled many of the tasks carried
  out in daily living just as it had been completed
  by their ancestors. The very cohesive society was
  based on a strong family unit, which was
  controlled by its eldest member. Every individual
  had close family ties and followed the traditions
  of ancestor worship. Obedience and subservience
  to the family or group were stressed, rather than
  individuality.

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China

• Education attempted to develop a students
  intellectual, moral, and aesthetic senses. In
  many cultures military needs are the reasons for
  developing a physical training programme. This
  was not the case for China, which has many
  natural barriers including the great wall (built
  200 BC). Although it should be noted much
  fighting went on internally.
• There was an early version of soccer, polo,
  archery and wrestling. Much of Chinas exercise
  forms are based on oneness with their
  surroundings. This is shown in many of the
  martial art forms. These forms of exercise
  enhance the philosophy of moderation in view of
  keeping an unchanging society.

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India

• When looking at India it is impossible to do so
  without understanding Hinduism as its religion.
  This was a social system as well as a religious
  practice. The caste system of this religious
  faith fixed people at birth socially and
  educationally. The emphasis in Education was on
  the concept of the re-cycling of life.
• Exercise was used for health similarly to Chinas
  culture. But the Indians had games and
  recreational sports such Karabadi.

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Egypt

• Although physical education was not a major part
  of Egyptian life, physical activities were very
  important to the Egyptians. They enjoyed many
  games and sports, and woman frequently
  participated. Swimming was popular (in the Nile),
  as were gymnastics activities, hunting, games
  involving skills of fighting and war, and many
  types of ball games. Boating and dance
  activities were extremely popular.

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Ancient Greece

• The following quotes are from the writings of the
  ancient Greeks, which gives us a great deal of
  information concerning physical training.
• 1) Plato Laches 182a
• 182a Since it is as good and strenuous as any
  physical exercise--but is also a form of exercise
  which, with riding, is particularly fitting for a
  free citizen for only the men trained in the use
  of these warlike implements can claim to be
  trained in the contest whereof we are athletes
  and in the affairs wherein we are called upon to
  contend.1 Further, this accomplishment will be of
  some benefit also in actual battle, when it comes
  to fighting in line with a number of other men
  but its greatest advantage will be felt when the
  ranks are broken, and you find you must fight man
  to man, either in pursuing someone who is trying
  to beat off your attack,

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Ancient Greece

• Lach.,182a,n1. I.e., in regular warfare.
• 2) Plato Philebus 30b
• 30b and the element of cause which exists in
  all things, this last, which gives to our bodies
  souls and the art of physical exercise and
  medical treatment when the body is ill, and which
  is in general a composing and healing power, is
  called the sum of all wisdom, and yet, while
  these same elements exist in the entire heaven
  and in great parts thereof, and area moreover,
  fair and pure, there is no means of including
  among them that nature which is the fairest and
  most precious of all.

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Ancient Greece

• 3) Xenophon Cyropaedia 1.6.17
• 1.6.17 "In the first place, by Zeus," said
  Cyrus, "I try never to eat too much, for that is
  oppressive and in the second place, I work off
  by exercise what I have eaten, for by so doing
  health seems more likely to endure and strength
  to accrue.""That, then, my son," said he, "is the
  way in which you must take care of the rest also.
• "Yes, father," said he "but will the soldiers
  find leisure for taking physical exercise?" "Nay,
  by Zeus," said his father, "they not only can,
  but they actually must. For if an army is to do
  its duty, it is absolutely necessary that it
  never cease to contrive both evil for the enemy
  and good for itself. What a burden it is to
  support even one idle man! It is more burdensome
  still to support a whole household in idleness
  but the worst burden of all is to support an army
  in idleness. For not only are the mouths in an
  army very numerous but the supplies they start
  with are exceedingly limited, and they use up
  most extravagantly whatever they get, so that an
  army must never be left idle."

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Ancient Greece

• 4) Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics 1143b
• Knowing about them does not make us any more
  capable of doing them, since the virtues are
  qualities of character just as is the case with
  the knowledge of what is healthy and
  vigorous--using these words to mean not
  productive of health
• 5) Aristotle Politics 1322b
• On the other hand, peculiar to the states that
  have more leisure and prosperity, and also pay
  attention to public decorum, are the offices of
  Superintendent of Women, Guardian of the Laws,
  Superintendent of Children, Controller of
  Physical Training, and vigor but resulting from
  them we are not rendered any more capable of
  healthy and vigorous action by knowing the
  science of medicine or of physical training

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Boxing
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Ancient Greece

• 6) Isocrates Antidosis 181
• 15.181 Since this is so, certain of our
  ancestors, long before our time, seeing that many
  arts had been devised for other things, while
  none had been prescribed for the body and for the
  mind, invented and bequeathed to us two
  disciplines, physical training for the body, of
  which gymnastics is a part, and, for the mind,
  philosophy, which I am going to explain.
• 7) Plato Republic 468e
• 468e and also with 'seats of honor and meat and
  full cups'1, so as to combine physical training
  with honor for the good, both men and women."

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Ancient Greece

• 8) Plato Republic 547d
• and the devotion to physical training and
  expertness in the game and contest of war--in all
  these traits it will copy the preceding state.
• 9) Xenophon Constitution of the Lacedaimonians
  1.4
• 1.4 But Lycurgus thought the labour of slave
  women sufficient to supply clothing. He believed
  motherhood to be the most important function of
  freeborn woman. Therefore, in the first place, he
  insisted on physical training for the female no
  less than for the male sex moreover, he
  instituted races and trials of strength for women
  competitors as for men, believing that if both
  parents are strong they produce more vigorous
  offspring.

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Ancient Greece

• 10) Xenophon Ways and Means 4.52
• 4.52 For the classes undergoing physical
  training will take more pains in the gymnasium
  when they receive their maintenance in full than
  they take under the superintendents of the torch
  races1 and the classes on garrison duty in a
  fortress, or serving as targeteers, or patrolling
  the country will show greater alacrity in
  carrying out all these duties when the
  maintenance is duly supplied for the work done.
• The Iliad and the Odyssey are the first written
  accounts of sport competitions, along with the
  first coaching advice given to his son.

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Spartan Education

• Sparta was a military state. They lived for war
  and consequently allowed weak children to die.
  Education was given by the state, and it was a
  harsh system of physical training for males
  beginning at seven where they left home and lived
  in the barracks.
• They trained in-groups under a youth leader until
  they were 14. Then from 14-20 years old they
  underwent more vigorous military training. They
  lived in barracks until they were thirty years
  old, when they were able to marry and leave, but
  they were still required to eat their meals with
  other soldiers.

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Spartan Education

• For girls training also began at seven years old
  until they were eighteen, with weight control and
  conditioning to prepare the girls for motherhood.
  The girls participated regularly in athletics and
  proud fathers and brothers placed many memorial
  markers, honoring their sporting achievements.
  When she married her athletic activities ended as
  she was expected to stay at home.
• Boxing was discouraged because men fought to the
  death, because Spartans were taught never to
  admit defeat. Much physical training was
  conducted to the sound of music. The sole
  emphasis of their training was purely on the
  physical, and consequently they were not able to
  govern effectively through poor development of
  the intellect.

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Athenian Education

• The Athenian model of education has long been the
  theoretical balance in modern western education.
  The motto for education was a sound mind in a
  sound body (mens sana in corpore sano).
• The philosophy of the education system was the
  beautiful and the good. This represented the
  ideal characteristics of the Athenian citizen
  aesthetic sensibilities, knowledge, physical
  skills and a strong sense of ethics. These
  philosophys culminated in the inscriptions on
  the temple of Delphi- know thyself and nothing
  in excess.

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Athenian Education

• Plato suggested boys begin physical education at
  6 years old, grammar at 10 and music at thirteen.
  At 18 years old, boys entered the military.
• The program of physical education for older males
  was concentrated at the gymnasium. Greek athletes
  competed without clothing (hence the word
  gymnasium, from the Greek word meaning "naked,"
  gymnos ).
• The physical education teacher was called a
  paidotribe, and the coach was called a gymnastes.
  The aim of these professions was to produce the
  qualities of the physical and intellectual
  through the physical. The training was similar to
  the Spartans except the Athenians sought a
  harmonious development of the individual.

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The athletic games and contests of the Greeks.

• The word Olympiad means a four-year period, and
  the Olympic games were help every four years. The
  festival lasted for five days in late August.
• Excellence (arete) as a competitive value for
  male Greek aristocrats showed up clearly in the
  Olympic Games, a religious festival associated
  with a large sanctuary of Zeus, king of the gods
  of the Greeks.
• Although, the Olympic games were not exclusively
  the domain of the wealthy Greek aristocracy, with
  many poorer persons participating. The sanctuary
  was located at Olympia, in the northwestern
  Peloponnese (the large peninsula that forms
  southern Greece), where the games were beginning
  in 776 B.C.
• During these great celebrations the men competed
  in running events and wrestling as individuals,
  not as national representatives on teams, as in
  the modern Olympic Games. The emphasis on
  physical prowess and fitness, competition, and
  public recognition by other men corresponded to
  the ideal of Greek masculine identity as it
  developed in this period. In a rare departure
  from the ancient Mediterranean tradition against
  public nakedness, the Olympic games grew.

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The athletic games and contests of the Greeks.

• The primary foot race was the stade (192 meters).
  A second race was twice this distance at 384
  meters. Other running races were held up to 5
  kilometers long. Field events included the long
  jump, the discus, javelin and wrestling.
• In later Greek athletic competitions prizes of
  value were often awarded. Admission was free to
  men married women were not allowed to attend, on
  pain of death, but women had their own separate
  festival at Olympia on a different date in honor
  of Zeus' wife, Hera. Although less is known about
  the games of Hera, literary sources report that
  unmarried young women competed on the Olympic
  track in a foot race five-sixths as long as the
  men's stadion.
• In later times, international games including
  the Olympics were dominated by professional
  athletes, who made good livings from appearance
  fees and prizes won at various games held all
  over Greece. The most famous of them all was
  Milo, from Croton, in southern Italy. Winner of
  the Olympic wrestling crown six times beginning
  in 536 B.C., he was renowned for showy stunts,
  such as holding his breath until his blood
  expanded his veins so much that they would snap a
  cord tied around his head.

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The athletic games and contests of the Greeks.

• Moreover, an international truce of several weeks
  was declared so that competitors and spectators
  from all the Greek communities could travel to
  and from Olympia in security, even if wars were
  otherwise in progress along their way.
• In short, the arrangements for the Olympic Games
  demonstrate that in eighth century B.C. the
  Greeks had developed the aristocratic values of
  individual activity, and the pursuit of
  excellence by one's self efforts. These ideas
  were beginning to be channeled into a new context
  appropriate for a changing society.

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The athletic games and contests of the Greeks.

• Greek athletes were extremely serious about their
  training. This is evident in part from their
  lengthy careers, and a 6 months a year
  competitive season. Professional coaches
  appeared, and the athletes training programs
  were coordinated with medical advice.
• A coachs handbook on training was written by
  Philostratus in the third century B.C. Amateur
  was not a word in the Greek language until the
  end of the 1800s of our era. The athletes of
  that time received great benefits from their
  victories.
• Theodosius 1 abolished the Olympic games in A.D.
  394. As a Christian he considered them pagan
  events as they honored Greek gods.

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The Roman Empire

• Roman civilization grew by the Tiber River in the
  central part of the Italian peninsula. It was
  founded by shepherds and traders. As the city
  grew it conquered the whole of the Italian
  peninsular, and then progessed further into other
  parts of the Mediterranean . The essential
  characteristic of Roman civilization was
  pragmatism- if it works do it. Where as Greeks
  were thinkers and philosophers the Romans were
  doers.

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Roman education

• The object of early Roman education was to
  produce children who would be true to the ideals
  and religion of the state. During a childs early
  years the education took place at home.
• Physical training for boys was directed almost
  entirely toward military goals. In contrast to
  the Greeks the Romans had no real interest in
  beauty, harmony or the balanced development of
  the individual, although a strong sense of morals
  were considered important.
• Literature study came from the memorization of
  the Twelve Tables, Romes codification of their
  laws.

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Roman education

• As the power and influence of Rome grew they saw
  a need to educate their citizens in being able to
  administer their empire. The military orientation
  now was more of a full time army made up of
  mercenaries, and non-citizens who were paid to
  serve in the army.
• Schools were developed outside the home as Rome
  grew. Greek slaves, who had a broader educational
  background than the Romans, now provided the
  education.
• The study included grammar, but the Romans saw
  no use for gymnastics or music so these were
  discarded. The educational system was unbalanced,
  from the arts to the sciences. The Romans made
  great contributions in law and engineering, as
  they saw these were of practical use. The Roman
  baths were more like modern health spas although
  exercise was taken at them, but not on the scale
  of the Greeks.

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Roman education

• As Rome grew more wealthy slaves completed many
  of the tasks of the former poor.
• Roman moral climate declined as Romans did not
  have to work to survive. Food was provided free
  for all that were in need of it by the state.
• In the latter stages of the Roman Empire, the
  Romans saw little reason for physical training
  and became a nation of spectators.
• They would attend the circus or the amphitheater
  and watch gladiatoral fights to the death. These
  events became more and more debauched as time
  went on. The early Christians receiving many
  painful methods of dying for their faith.

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Roman Sport

• Romans were not interested in the intrinsic value
  of sport as the Greeks were.
• The Romans primary practical pursuit for physical
  training was in regard to war and entertainment.
• Romans were mainly spectators and there is great
  debate whether to call the participants athletes
  or entertainers.
• It most be noted that the Romans did not consider
  these events as cruel. The gladiators were
  criminals or slaves and not free persons. The
  arena was a way of entertaining the masses and
  distracting them from the less pleasant realities
  of their own lives.

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Roman Sport

• The difference between the Greek and Roman
  cultures is shown in how they viewed sport by the
  words they used for it. The Greek word is agon
  meaning contest, whereas the Roman word is ludi
  which meant game, amusement or entertainment. The
  Roman Empire lost the concept of mind-body
  balance, and the idea of all-around bodily
  development.
• The Greeks emphasized the honor of victory and
  the joy of competition, but this changed over the
  Roman era to victory alone. Few sought after this
  type of competition and so consequently the
  majority became spectators and gambled on the
  outcome.

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Questions

• Why did sport and games emerge in these
  societies?
• List differences and similarities between the
  different societies.
• Using the differences and similarities between
  the different societies explain why certain
  sports and games emerged in some societies and
  not others?
• Can you note any differences or similarities
  between the ancient world and today?

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe.

• The Roman Empire fell, and the growing Catholic
  church (in the west) was then the only stable
  institution in Europe during the medieval period.
  The feudal system was the dominant social
  structure.
• Education begun at seven years old for noblemen.
  The boys served as a page in another Noblemans
  home. This stage lasted until they were fourteen
  years old.
• Woman and household workers trained the page
  during this phase of his education.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe.

• At fourteen he became a squire until he was
  twenty-one years old. This phase of training
  involved serving a Knight or a group of Knights.
• He trained in learning the arts of war,
  developing his body and performing acts of
  obligation to his lord. At twenty-one years old
  or younger if noted for bravery, he was knighted.
  This was a serious religious ceremony.
• Physical training lay at the core of the training
  for knighthood at all the stages, with the goals
  of acquiring military prowess and developing
  social graces and sports skills.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe.

• It is believed the Catholic Church was opposed to
  Physical Education for the following reasons
• The debased character of the Roman sports and
  games consequently were view as an evil activity,
  which disturbed the early Medieval Church.
• It closely associated the Roman games with pagan
  religions.
• The church was growing in the belief of the evil
  nature of the body. The body and soul were
  becoming viewed as two separate entities. The
  soul should be preserved and strengthened but the
  body should not be catered for in any way. It
  should not be given entertaining or beneficial
  exercises.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe.

• The church attempted to suppress many games and
  sports at this time as they were considered
  frivolous and tinged with sin. Dancing was
  strongly discouraged because of its sensual
  nature. Although Thomas Aquinas advocated
  Physical Education being the most prominent
  churchmen of his time.
• The role Thomas Aquinas played is crucial to
  understanding the development of modern thought
  and practice of physical education. There were
  two great schools of thought emerging from the
  Greek philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe.

• Platonism viewed reality from a spiritual
  standpoint, whereas Aristotle viewed reality as
  the here and now.
• Thomas Aquinas revived the Aristotle world-view
  in the middle ages and his teaching was the
  precursor for the renaissance period.
• The church was the provider of education in the
  middle ages and it consisted of seven liberal
  arts courses arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
  music, grammar, rhetoric and logic.
• Sport during the middle ages (like much of
  history) was mainly for the wealthy upper
  classes. During the Middle Ages the tradition of
  chivalry dominated much of the physical training.
  These events were tournaments where knights
  fought to prove the strength and prowess.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe

• As the middle ages progressed into the fourteenth
  and fifteenth centuries, medieval civilization
  began to decline. Towns, education and the arts
  began to flourish. Nations in Europe became
  united under various kings and queens and began
  to resemble the nations we know today. This was
  the beginning of the renaissance period.
• As the renaissance drew near the middle and lower
  classes began to develop their own sports
  activities separately from those of the upper
  classes. These physical activities resembled
  throwing objects, running and jumping. The Middle
  class that had been steadily growing since the
  10th Century, began to develop their own games.
  They developed variations of the Knights games as
  they attempted to train to defend their cities.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe

• Many of the modern ball games came from this
  time where the masses played games and had
  goals, which were often the city gates. One such
  influence is the French game "soule" which is
  similar to Rugby. All classes began to
  participate in these contests.
• The Bayeux Tapestry (which illustrates the Norman
  Conquest of England in 1066) illustrates a
  constant thread through this period of play is
  ritualized aggression and that play is training
  for war. Cock fighting, stone and javelin
  throwing bear bating, hunting, ice-skating and
  football were some of the sports played during
  this period.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe

• Due to the influence of Aquinas, the Church began
  to accept more worldly recruits into the newer
  religious orders.
• Many of the customs and games of the countries
  the Catholic Church Christianized became
  popularized and accepted into the church.
• The Moslem spring ball game became associated
  with Easter. The growing number of public
  holidays became a natural time for these games
  and recreational activities to be played.
• There are accounts of the three-wall handball
  game being played up against churches using the
  corners of the buttresses as the court.

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Physical Education and sport in medieval and
early modern Europe

• In the late middle ages both the church and the
  state began to make rules and laws against
  sporting activities partly because of civil
  disturbances and occasional deaths that resulted
  form sports.
• The other important factor in this was national
  defense and the state wanted men to practice
  archery rather than play games.
• The decline of the Knight was due to the English
  longbow and with it the chivalrous tournaments
  disappeared with the emergence of gunpowder. The
  field of cloth of gold in 1520 was the last
  tournament under Henry V111.
• The view that the body is evil and the emergence
  of the popularity of games and sports was played
  out, right up to the twentieth century.

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Questions

• Why did the Catholic church suppress sports and
  games?
• Why did many sports and games continue despite
  the Catholic churches ban?
• Why did the Catholic church begin to accept
  sports and games later on?

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The Renaissance Period

• The Middle Ages did not disappear suddenly
  Medieval life and civilization gradually waned
  for more than a century before the Renaissance
  burst out in full force in Italy.
• The Renaissance began in Italy in the thirteenth
  century and spread throughout North and Western
  Europe for the next two centuries.
• The Renaissance required a utilitarian kind of
  Education that could not be found within
  theological study. The demands of business
  necessitated the study of law. Scholars began to
  search for the Roman codes and indexes, which led
  to the study of other classical works from
  ancient Greece.

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The Renaissance Period

• The Renaissance was endeared to the ancient
  philosophy of stoic-humanism, which combined the
  life of action and that of contemplation.
• The men of the Renaissance felt obligated to
  serve the community as well as to learn all they
  could about the rational world.
• This education was dispelled from the new
  Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Bologna,
  Salerno, and Paris.
• The increase of humanistic thought brought the
  decrease of church-controlled education to a more
  popular secular educational model.
• Physical education was a part of these
  universities at this time, but it was limited by
  the belief that physical training would interfere
  with academic studies.
• Their sport was more intramural rather than
  varsity athletics. The Renaissance helped to
  bring back the all-round person, allowing for the
  development of team games and individual
  competitive activities (such as military skills).

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The Renaissance Period

• One typically Roman trait that became the
  hallmark of the Renaissance man was universality.
  
• The complete man had mastery of many facets of
  life. Leonardo da Vinci was the epitome of this
  ideal. He was a writer, painter, optician,
  cartographer, astronomer, geologist, botanist,
  and studied anatomy and mechanics. He was an
  engineer and inventor as well.
• There were others during this time that excelled
  in many fields such as Michelangelo, Cellini and
  Lorenzo de Medici.

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The Renaissance Period

• The study of the ancient writings that expressed
  many humanistic ideas brought a conflict between
  the church and intellectuals. The Renaissance
  perhaps is the clearest example of the necessity
  of a balance between freedom and order,
  individual interests and social and political
  stability, rights and obligations, power and
  responsibility.
• The education of the period began to develop
  along the lines of the Greek ideal it stressed a
  classical education combined with physical
  education. A major leader was Vittorino da Feltre
  (1374-1446). His school for children of nobility
  taught the Athenian model of classics but also
  included swimming, fencing, riding, and dancing.
  The universal model was vigorously promoted in
  this education program.

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The Renaissance Period

• The energy and enthusiasm of the Renaissance
  found expression in a wide variety of sports and
  games.
• Schoolmasters in general considered physical
  activity an essential part of the curriculum.
  Exercise was deemed a necessity for both young
  and old.
• The fore-runners to tennis, baseball and bowling
  were very popular.
• Physical activity was both utilitarian and
  enjoyable. It provided for the sound body in
  which a sound mind could exist, and it was fun.
  Other sports were ball games, horse races, boxing
  matches, racquet games, gambling, dancing, hunts,
  and dancing.

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The Renaissance Period

• A quote from the time by Castiglione reveals the
  Renaissance noblemans perception of sport.
• Also it is a noble exercise, and meete for one
  living in Court to play at Tenise, where the
  disposition of the body, the quickness and
  nimbleness of every member is much perceived, and
  almost whatsoever a man can see in all other
  exercises. And I reckon vaulting no less praise,
  which for all it is painefull and hard, maketh a
  man more light and quicker than any of the rest.
• War and invasion took the ideas of the
  Renaissance Italy to other areas in Europe.
  Although during this time other European nations
  were developing vibrant cultures.

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The Renaissance Period

• The working masses during the Renaissance were on
  the whole able to improve their circumstances and
  many were freed from serfdom. Their carnival
  festivities held on public holidays, were full of
  eating, drinking, games and dancing.
• The struggle at this time for people to break
  away from the Catholic Church produced men such
  as Martin Luther and Calvin. The beginning of the
  Protestant Church gave a greater support for
  physical activities. Protestants believed that
  physical activities might help to prevent
  corruption of the body in word and deed, and
  therefore, were of moral value.
• Also, the Protestant belief that everyone has the
  right to read the Scriptures increased the need
  for general education to ensure literacy.
  Education under the Catholic Church had been for
  its leaders and scholars.

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The Renaissance Period

• As we move closer to the modern era, sport was
  still in a low level, informal state. Games had
  general forms but were not standardized.
• Many variations of each sport existed across
  Europe. Nationalism was a product of the
  Renaissance, but international sport on the scale
  of the Greeks had not yet emerged.

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Questions

• What were some of the changes from medieval
  Europe to renaissance Europe?
• What are the arguments presented for and against
  sport/PE/games from a religious perspective
  during this time?

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Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw more
  progress toward our current educational practices
  than any previous time, except perhaps ancient
  Greece. To follow this progress of physical
  education during this time period, it is
  important to look at the educational theorists
  rather than organized programs, as they were
  none.
• This period is known as the age of reason and
  enlightenment. The atmosphere was characterized
  by optimism. In education realists proposed
  that that goal of education was to tie reality to
  life as it really was.

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Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• The humanistic theories previously discussed were
  developed and broken away from. These were
  humanistic realists, social realists, and sense
  realists.
• Physical education was still a minor part of the
  curriculum but as educational theory developed,
  physical education began to become a valuable
  part of the educational process. These realists
  called for physical activities in education and
  their primary motivation was for improved health.

50
Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• Francois Rabelais (1495-1553) believed in
  physical educations importance in preparation
  for war. The difference in Rabelaiss ideas was
  he believed a Knight should also be trained as a
  scholar. The physical activities were designed to
  strengthen his body and serve as recreation.
• John Milton (1608-1674) the English writer
  believed that a classical education was useful,
  but felt that eight years of study should be
  condensed into one. He divided the study day into
  three parts study, exercise and meals. The
  exercises were basically war orientated although
  play and games were used, but in a sense of
  honing skills for war.

51
Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• A social theorist Michael De Montaigne
  (1533-1592) focused his education theories on
  aristocratic boys. He believed that experience
  and reason were the roads to knowledge. He said,
  to know by heart is not to know.
• Much of modern educational theory can be traced
  to his theories, with his use of physical
  activities to further a pupils experiences
  stressing the cohesiveness of mind and body. He
  did not link learning experiences through games
  though.

52
Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• John Locke (1632-1704) an English social theorist
  used the now popular phase of physical educators
  a sound mind in a sound body. This in fact came
  from Juvenal, a Roman writer. Locke believed that
  mind and body were separate entities and all
  ideas came from personal experiences.
• This may be better translated to the paradigm
  experiences of the senses combined with mental
  reflection or thought which is based from those
  experiences. He stressed physical exercise as a
  way of health and recreation as a beneficial
  break in the normal pattern of life. Similar to
  Jay Nashes twentieth century statement of
  recreation as re-creation.

53
Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• A leading sense realist was Richard Mulcaster
  (1531-1611) from England. He believed a tutor at
  home should teach students with other students,
  rather than individually. Mulcaster was also
  convinced that teachers should be trained
  professionally. He suggested that both men and
  woman should receive education, rather than only
  males, and he was one of the first to suggest
  coeducational activities among woman.
• He was interested in physical and moral training
  through exercise and believed that mass education
  could use physical activities to develop social
  values. He strongly encouraged physical education
  and his works were rediscovered in the 1800s.

54
Education and Physical Education in the 1600s

• Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635) of Germany was another
  great theoretician of educational reform. He
  developed education on a scientific basiss by
  teaching students what they needed to learn, and
  at an age they are ready to learn it. He is
  considered the father of modern education despite
  his failing to translate his ideas into practice.
• John Comenius (1592-1670) a Czechoslovakian,
  believed that children could learn much through
  recreational activities as well as improve their
  health.

55
The Book of Sports 1618

• The Puritan party mistakenly supposed that Sunday
  was to be identified with the Jewish Sabbath.
  Their views had aroused great opposition and King
  James had ordered the Book for Sports to be read
  from the pulpit. The clergy refused and so the
  request was withdrawn until Charles 1 reissued
  the decree in 1633 (see handout).
• The realism of the 1600s was followed by the
  enlightenment of the 1700s. This move attempted
  to spread rationalism and knowledge to all
  people.

56
Education and Physical Education in the 1600-1700s

• The educational theorists of the enlightenment
  believed in a more general education for all,
  growing out of the realists theories a century
  before.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) of France
  published two books Emile (1762) and The Social
  Contract (1767). These books expounded that all
  humans are free and equal by nature and that
  inequality appeared only after Governments had
  developed. Rousseau believed people to be good by
  nature but were corrupted by civilization.
• Education was allowing the child to develop as
  nature intended and to avoid anything that would
  hamper this development. Children were given
  tasks that were geared toward learning from
  nature and experience and were considered to be
  age appropriate. This education was for males
  only.

57
Education and Physical Education in the 1600-1700s

• Rousseau regarded play as both healthful and
  educational but did not think it should be
  forced.
• John Basedow (1724-1790) a German educator used
  Rousseaus naturalism and made it into an
  educational practice. He financed a school, which
  became known as the Dessau Educational Institute
  in 1774. He treated children as children, not as
  young adults.
• He placed a heavy stress on physical activity,
  with the school day broken into 5 hours of
  classes, three hours of recreation (fencing,
  riding, dancing and music) and two hours of
  manual labor that taught a craft for the student.
  He organized camping trip, which resembles our
  outdoor education programs. Although this school
  did not survive it had great influence throughout
  Europe in regard to the importance of physical
  activities for the child.

58
Education and Physical Education in the 1600-1800s

• A school that did survive was the Schnepfenthal
  Educational Institute near Gotha in eastern
  Germany. Christian Salzmann founded it in 1785.
  He employed Johann Guts Muths who taught there
  for fifty years developing the Dessau gymnastics
  program. Salzmanns book on these physical
  activities reached the United States in 1825.
  Many of his practices are similar to those
  followed today.
• Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) was a Swiss teacher
  who taught in Yverdon, Germany. He believed
  humans to be social creatures and that education
  was a natural process where the child wanted to
  learn and the teacher was a guide taking them
  from easy to difficult activities. He saw
  education as having three aspects intellectual,
  practical, and most importantly moral. Physical
  education was also important to bring mind and
  body into full harmony. His school offered daily
  one hour of gymnastics five days a week.

59
Education and Physical Education in the 1600-1800s

• Phillipp Von Fellenberg (1771-1844) based his
  ideas on Pestalozzi who began a very successful
  vocational school of labor. He felt that his
  students had enough activity through a planned
  curriculum of manual labor, but allowed his
  students outdoor activities as free choices in
  their leisure time.
• Freidrich Froebal (1782-1852) developed a theory
  of play based on his observations of Pestalozzis
  school. He stressed that play was essential to
  the education and development of children. He
  began a kindergarten in Germany and put his ideas
  into practice.

60
Education and Physical Education in the 1800s

• From about 1800 onward, educational theories in
  Europe moved rapidly to the United States as
  immigrants brought many ideas with them. Many
  educational developments were concurrent on both
  continents by 1850, but developing American
  educational practices were strongly based on the
  work of the nineteenth-century European theorist
  (Freeman, 1997).

61
Questions

• Define humanistic realists, social realists, and
  sense realists?
• Should teachers be professionally trained?
• Define the mind?
• Define the body?
• What does a sound mind in a sound body mean?
• Why is this period known as the age of reason and
  enlightenment?
• Why do children learn through recreational
  activities as well as PE and can it improve their
  health?

62
The seeds of modern sport

• The transition to modern sport began during the
  1700s as some sporting activities started to
  develop higher levels of organization and
  standardized rules.
• For example the Jockey Club was formed in 1750 as
  an organization of rich owners and horse
  breeders. Club members began to write rules for
  racing, appoint officials and assess penalties
  for breaking the rules. The Marlybone cricket
  club was founded in 1787 and they quickly
  standardized the sport.
• The Royal and Ancient Golf Club was founded in
  1754 at St Andrews, Scotland and they published
  and standardized the rules of golf, with 18 holes
  being introduced by 1764. In boxing the
  Broughtons Rules were introduced in 1741,
  which became the London Prize Fighting Rules in
  1838 and eventually the Queensburys Rules in
  1867.

63
The seeds of modern sport

• These sports were held on Monday and Tuesday to
  enable spectators to view them. They were not
  held on Sundays. The tempo of the work increased
  as the week progressed and so Monday was regarded
  as a holiday.
• The increase in town population and cities
  brought sports events to a greater forum and a
  fee paying basis, as people left villages to work
  in the towns.

64
Nineteenth-century European Physical Education
and Sport

• There is no clear demarcation between the
  eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in European
  physical education. The philosophies and
  experimental schools of the 1700s produced the
  progress of the 1800s.
• During the 1800s Napoleon was put to rest, but
  the unrest of the populace during 1815-1850 saw
  many rebellions. National pride was at an all
  time high. Many sought to establish educational
  systems to strengthen their nations. Those
  disenchanted with European life were leaving for
  the United States.

65
Nineteenth-century European Physical Education
and Sport

• Freidrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852) a German
  educator is often considered the father of
  gymnastics. He began using an open area, which he
  called the turnplatz or exercise group, which was
  basically a playground with apparatus for
  exercises. It later spread and was called
  Turnvereins.
• He went to prison for his political views and
  Adolf Spiess (1810-1858) carried his ideas
  forward. He developed the ideas of Guts Muth and
  Froebel into the Gymnastics Manual for Schools.
  This manual classified exercises by difficulty
  and by appropriate age and sex. He developed
  exercises that required almost no apparatus. He
  used musical accompaniment for those activities.
• He also stressed that professionally trained
  specialists should only be allowed to teach
  gymnastics. He wanted indoor areas as well as
  outdoors to ensure all year round activity. He
  also stressed his gymnastics was for girls
  especially the free exercises. His system also
  included marching, and this emphasized discipline
  and obedience.

66
Nineteenth-century European Physical Education
and Sport

• Franze Nichtegall (1777-1847) is the father of
  Danish physical education, inspired by Guts Muth
  in 1804 he was made director of the newly
  established Military Gymnastics Institute, which
  prepared teachers of gymnastics first for the
  military and then later for schools. He was also
  a promoter of Per Henrik Lings Swedish system of
  Gymnastics.
• Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839) was the founder of
  Swedish gymnastics, although he was influenced by
  Nachegalls work while living in Denmark. He
  returned to Sweden and became the Director of the
  new Royal Gymnastics Central Institute in 1814
  where he used simple, fundamental movements for
  both educational and military purposes. The
  system was fully developed by his son.

67
Nineteenth-century European Physical Education
and Sport

• Archibald Maclaren (1820-1884) had a major
  influence on physical training in England. He
  designed a physical training program for the
  military, which encompassed body exercise as well
  as the use of apparatus.
• Above all, Maclaren stressed a balance between
  recreational activities and educational
  activities. His gymnastics never took hold in
  England, but his writings were a major influence
  on physical education in England until the late
  1800s.

68
Questions

• Define clearly what marks the development of
  modern sport?
• What was the background to modern sports
  development?
• Define modern sport?