Qualitative Research

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Qualitative Research
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The Nature of Qualitative Research
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What is Qualitative Research?

• Denzin and Lincoln (1994) define qualitative
  research
• Qualitative research is multi-method in focus,
  involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach
  to its subject matter. This means that
  qualitative researchers study things in their
  natural settings, attempting to make sense of or
  interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings
  people bring to them. Qualitative research
  involves the studied use and collection of a
  variety of empirical materials case study,
  personal experience, introspective, life story
  interview, observational, historical,
  interactional, and visual texts-that describe
  routine and problematic moments and meaning in
  individuals' lives.

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The Assumptions of Qualitative Research

• Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily
  with process, rather than outcomes or products.
• Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning
  how people make sense of their lives,
  experiences, and their structures of the world.
• The qualitative researcher is the primary
  instrument for data collection and analysis. Data
  are mediated through this human instrument,
  rather than through inventories, questionnaires,
  or machines.
• Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The
  researcher physically goes to the people,
  setting, site, or institution to observe or
  record behavior in its natural setting.
• Qualitative research is descriptive in that the
  researcher is interested in process, meaning, and
  understanding gained through words or pictures.
• The process of qualitative research is inductive
  in that the researcher builds abstractions,
  concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

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General Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Bogdan and Biklen (1998) describe five general
  features of Qualitative Research
• The natural setting is a direct source and key
  element
• Collection is in the form of words or pictures
• Researchers are concerned with how things occur
• Construction of a picture while data is being
  collected vs. knowing what to expect
• Special interest in the participants thoughts

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How Qualitative and Quantitative Researchers See
the World
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Steps in Qualitative Research

• All qualitative studies have a distinct starting
  and ending point. They begin when the researcher
  identifies the phenomenon and ends when a final
  conclusion is made.
• The steps are as follows
• Identification of the phenomenon to be studied
  (foreshadowed problems)
• Identification of the participants in the study
  (purposive sample collecting)
• Generation of hypotheses
• Data collection (continual observance)
• Data analysis
• Interpretation/Conclusions

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Approaches to Qualitative Research

• The following are approaches to qualitative
  research
• Biographical Study
• Phenomenological Study
• Grounded Theory Study
• Case Study
• Intrinsic Case Study
• Instrumental Case Study
• Multiple or Collective Case Study
• Ethnography

See the text for more detail about each approach
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Generalization in Qualitative Research

• A generalization is usually thought of as a
  statement or claim that applies to more than one
  individual, group, or situation.
• The value of a generalization is that it allows
  us to have expectations about the future.
• A limitation of qualitative research is that
  there is seldom justification for generalizing
  the findings of a particular study.
• Due to this problem, replication of qualitative
  studies becomes more important than for
  quantitative studies.

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Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered

• Qualitative and Quantitative Research can be used
  together.
• Descriptive statistics are sometimes used to
  provide quantitative details in a qualitative
  study.
• The most widely held view is that there is no one
  best method.

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Ethnography
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Ethnography

• Ethno refers to human culture
• Graphy means description of

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Ethnography

• A research process used in the scientific study
  of human interactions in social settings
• Used extensively in anthropology
• Has become increasing popular in educational
  research over the past few years
• Has been relatively slow to become accepted in
  agricultural and extension education

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Ethnography

• Purpose to describe and explain a facet or
  segment of group social life as it relates to
  education

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Ethnography

• Hypotheses and questions begin as a broad
  statement about the purpose of the research, then
  are allowed to emerge more specifically as data
  are amassed.

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Ethnography

• Data - verbal descriptions of people,
  interactions, settings, objects and phenomena
  within the context being studies

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Ethnography

• Data Sources the people, settings, and relevant
  objects being observed

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Ethnography

• Data Collection done by the researcher through
  observation, sometimes combined with interview

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Ethnography

• Data treatment and analysis presentation of
  verbal descriptions and/or logical analysis of
  information to discover salient patterns and
  themes

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The Process

• A question or concern is identified for study
• A group to study is identified
• Typically small
• Typically purposively selected

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The Process

• Permission to study the group is obtained
• The researcher observes the group
• Privileged observer just observes
• Participant observer functions as part of the
  group

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The Process

• Researcher watches and listens attentively and
  records as much detail as possible (this is
  called naturalistic observation). Large amounts
  of notes are typically generated.
• This process may last a week or two or could be
  years.

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The Process

• The researcher analyzes the notes, identifies
  themes, looks for answers to research questions,
  and makes logical inferences.

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The Process

• The final step is to write the research paper
  describing the process, observations, findings,
  and conclusion.
• Often rich descriptions are provided so the
  readers can make their own interpretations.

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Ethnographic Research

• Strengths
• Looks at the situation holistically
• May arrive at greater understanding of the
  problem than other research processes

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Ethnographic Research

• Concerns
• Possible bias on the part of the observer (which
  leads to validity concerns)
• Generalizability (how generalizable are the
  findings from a small, purposely selected group)

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Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

• Credibility would the group being observed say
  the findings were credible? Are the findings
  logical and reasonable?

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Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

• Transferability Would a reader be willing to
  transfer the results to another group or setting?

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Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

• Dependability the researcher accurately
  describes the context, setting and changes that
  may have occurred during the study.

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Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

• Confirmability if there were additional
  observers, would they describe the situation the
  same and arrive at the same conclusions.

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When to Conduct Ethnographic Research

• To define a problem when the problem is not clear
  
• To define a problem that is complex and embedded
  in multiple systems or sectors
• To identify participants when the participants,
  sectors, or stakeholders are not yet known or
  identified

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When to Conduct Ethnographic Research

• To clarify the range of settings where the
  problem or situation occurs at times when the
  settings are not fully identified, known, or
  understood
• To explore the factors associated with the
  problem in order to understand it