Title: THE AFRICAN BRAIN DRAIN: USING INTELLECTUAL DIASPORA TO MANAGE THE DRAIN: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS
1THE AFRICAN BRAIN DRAIN USING INTELLECTUAL
DIASPORA TO MANAGE THE DRAIN WHAT ARE THE
OPTIONS?
OCTOBER 2007
- PRESENTATION TO THE ASSOCIATION OF
- AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),
- CONFERENCE OF RECTORS, VICE CHANCELLORS AND
PRESIDENTS OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (COREVIP)
By Dr. Patrick Onsando Ph.D Moi University
Eldoret Kenya
2Abstract
- There is an increasing realization that the next
society will be a knowledge society, enabled by
the rapidly developing information and
communications technology. - This is despite the fact that the brain drain has
brought harmful effects to Africa as some of her
best talents have emigrated resulting into lower
rates of growth, less productive educational
investments and poorer health care. - The endogenous growth model provides evidence on
these effects. - There has also been a loss of actual and
potential innovators who might have led the way
to modernization, as they migrated to educational
systems and working environments that have
supported their innovative and creative
abilities. - This study shows that in order to exploit its
full potential, Africa will have to depend
increasingly on the acquisition, creation and use
of knowledge. - However having the storehouse of treasure in the
form of knowledge workers is not enough. In order
to carry out those functions well, and be on the
cutting edge, Africa needs an effective
innovation system, linking up with, innovation
friendly enterprises the various research units,
universities, consultants, and other
organizations that are able to access the growing
stock of global knowledge and create new
knowledge and new technologies. - We conclude that, the intellectual Diaspora may
constitute a key resource for Africa, by
providing contacts of many types, contributing
know-how and investments and enhancing
international trade and creation of wealth.
3CONTEXT
- Because of low training capacity, a large
proportion of Africans are still trained outside
Africa, exposing them to the challenge of the
Brain drain. - Millions of Africa Science and technology
experts are stuck in western countries as part of
this brain drain. - According to the International Organization for
Migration (IOM), Africa has already lost one
third of its human capital and is continuing to
lose its skilled personnel at an increasing rate,
with an estimated 20,000 doctors, university
lecturers, engineers and other professional
leaving the continent annually since 1990. - There are currently over 300,000 highly qualified
Africans in the Diaspora, 30,000 of which have
PhDs. - Africa spends US4 billion per year (representing
35 of total official development aid to the
continent) to employ some 100,000 Western experts
performing functions generically described as
technical assistance. - Africa as a whole counts only 20,000 scientists
(3.6 percent of the world total) and its share
in the worlds scientific output has fallen from
0.5 to 0.3 as it continues to suffer the brain
drain of scientists, engineers and technologists.
4CONTEXT
Continuation
- The problem of brain drain has reached quite
disturbing proportions in certain African
countries, with Ethiopia ranked first in the
continent in terms of rate of loss of human
capital, followed by Nigeria and Ghana. - Ethiopia lost about 74.6 of its human capital
from various institutions between 1980 and 1991. - While Ethiopia has 1 full-time economics
professor, there are more than 100 Ethiopian
economists in the United States. - According to the estimates of the Presidential
Committee on Brain Drain set up in 1988 by the
Babangida administration, Nigeria, between 1986
and 1990, lost over 10,000 academics from
tertiary education institutions alone. - Total estimates, including those who left
public, industrial and private organizations, are
over 30,000. 64 of Nigerians in the United
States aged 25 and older have at least a
bachelors degree. - The Zimbabwe National Association of Social
Workers estimates that 1,500 of the countrys
3,000 trained social workers left for the United
Kingdom over the past 10 years. - African countries are funding the education of
their nationals only to see them end up
contributing to the growth of developed countries
with little or no return on their investment. - In Kenya, for example, it costs about US40,000
to train a doctor and US10,000-15,000 to educate
a university student for 4 years. - The health sector is particularly affected
indeed, desperate shortage of health
professionals is the most serious obstacle as
Africa tries to fight AIDS and support other
health programs. - Kenya loses on average 20 medical doctors each
month. - Ghana lost 60 of its medical doctors in the
1980s, 600 to 700 Ghanaian physicians are
currently practicing in the USA alone, a figure
that represents roughly 50 of the total
population of doctors in Ghana.
5CONTEXT
Continuation
- The loss of nurses, in particular, is growing
phenomenon, fueled principally by the shortages
in developed countries. - The United States has 126,000 fewer nurses that
it needs and government figures show that the
country could face a shortage of 800,000
registered nurses by 2020. - Because of such shortages, industrialized nations
have embarked on massive international
recruitment drives, offering African nurses the
opportunity to earn as much as 20 times their
salaries. - The 1993 UNDP Human Development Report indicated
that more than 21,000 Nigerian doctors were
practicing in the United States alone while
Nigeria suffers from a shortage of doctors. - If we were to add the number of Nigerian doctors
in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states, Europe,
Australia and those in other African countries,
the figure would be close to 30,000. - One third of Ethiopian medical doctors have
already left the country. - In Zambia, the public sector only retains about
50 out of 600 doctors trained in the countrys
medical school. - The flight of health professionals is not limited
to doctors and affects nurses, pharmacists and
social services personnel as well. - It is not only the medics that are affected it is
the entire spectrum of professionals. - African is thus fascinated with how it can
utilize the African Diaspora to improve the lot
of Africa.
6CONTEXT
Continuation
- To acquire the scientific knowledge and
technology required for a technological regime,
Africa will have to strengthen its capacity to
use wisely a mix of channels, including, copying,
imitating, duplicating, intelligence gathering,
resource engineering, licensing, FDI, partnering
networking with the Diaspora, overseas studies,
technical assistance and international and
regional cooperation. - Africa may adapt innovation systems based on a
catch-up model which favors the acquisition of
advanced technologies from abroad in selected
sectors rather than a broader strengthening of
its knowledge base. - However, reliance on foreign technology results
in heavy dependence on foreign sources of
materials, parts and components. This limits the
beneficial linkage effects and amplifies
vulnerability to external shocks.
7Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
- Endogenous innovation models embrace a
neo-Schumpeterian framework of endogenous
technological change based on three premises
(Gross man and Helpman, 1991, 1994 Crafts, 1996
Aghion and Howitt, 1998). - First, the basic driving force behind economic
growth is technological change, that is
improvement in knowledge about how we transform
inputs into outputs in the production process. - Second, technological change is endogenous, being
determined by deliberate activities of economic
agents acting largely in response to financial
incentives. - Third, the defining characteristic of
ideas/knowledge is that once the cost of creating
a new set of instructions has been incurred, the
instructions can be used over and over again at
no additional cost (Romer 1990). Therefore ideas
are non-rivalries outputs and their use by one
firm or person does not in any way reduce their
availability to other firms or persons. - The new growth literature therefore suggests
that, the negative implications of a brain drain
on the source country are magnified. For example,
Hague and Kim (1995) posits that the emigration
of people with high levels of human capital
reduces the growth rate of the effective human
capital that remains in the economy, and thus
generates the reduction of the per capita growth
in the source country. - Under this scenario not only is high skilled
labour complementary with capital and low-skilled
labour, but high-skilled workers enhance
technological innovations and their diffusion. - The main implication is that a continuous outflow
of high skilled labour would deplete the source
countrys level of human capital and thus reduce
the capacity of the country to achieve as much
technological progress as other economies.
8Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
- Scenarios from the standard model of production
and endogenous growth models reflect the drain
of brains view that dominated migration research
from the 1950s to the 1970s. - However, these, two scenarios ignore the fact
that migration can induce skill formation. - The standard and new growth models have been
challenged in various theoretical papers that
examine the impact of migration on human capital
formation within a context of rational migration
flows (see Beine et al. 2001, and mount fold
1997). - The theory assumes that workers weigh the costs
of acquiring skills against prospective market
rewards for enhancing skills, both at home and
abroad and thus making optimal decisions. - Scherer (1999) advocates that human capital is
the most important input in the process of
advancing technology. - A growing body of literature has addressed the
complementarities of human capital and
technological progress. - One of the earliest models developed is by Nelson
and Phelps (1966), which suggested what the level
of education, speeds up technological diffusion. - Their simple illustration was that of an educated
farmer, possessing ability to discern profitable
ideas and thus adopting new processes or products
more quickly than his uneducated counterpart. - Benhabib and Spiegel (2002), using cross data
obtains results consistent to Nelson and Phelps
hypothesis and extends the role of human capital
to be an engine of domestic innovation besides
being a facilitator of technology adoption.
9Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
- Romer (1990) challenges and augments the Solow
neoclassical growth model, which assumes
technology to be exogenous and hence available
without limitation everywhere across the globe. - In order to explain continuous growth of output
per worker in the long run the Solow model must
incorporate the influence of sustainable
technological progress. - Y At KaL1-a (1)
- Where ? and 1-? are weights reflecting the share
of capital and labour in the national income.
Assuming constant returns to scale, and for a
given technology, At0, output per worker is
positively related to the capital-labour ratio
(K/L). We can therefore rewrite the production
function equation (1) in terms of output per
worker as shown by - Y/L A(t0)(K/L)A(t0)KaL1-a/LA(t0)(K/L)a
(2) - Letting y Y/L and k K/L, we have the
intensive form of the aggregate production. - yA(t0)ka (3)
- For a given technology, equation (3) tells us
that increasing the amount of capital per worker
(capital deepening) will lead to an increase in
output per worker.
10Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
Fig 1. Technological progress
The impact of exogenous technological progress is
illustrated in figure 1 by a shift of the
production function between two time periods (t0
gtt1) from A(t0)ka to A(t1)ka, raising output per
worker from ya to yb for a given capital-labour
ratio of ka. Continuous upward shifts of the
production function, induced by an exogenously
determined growth of knowledge, provide the only
mechanism for explaining steady state growth of
output per worker in the neoclassical model.
11Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
- Continuous upward shifts of the production
function, induced by an exogenous determined a
growth of knowledge, provides the only mechanism
for explaining steady growth of output per
worker in the neoclassical model. - Insights on the impacts of technology on
production are also provided by (Kumar and
Rusell) decomposition. - This decomposition exploits the assumption of
constant returns to scale, in which case the
benchmark technology sets can be drawn in ltk, ygt
space, where k K/L and y Y/L. - Using these hypothetical technologies for two
periods, as we have already shown, say a base
period b and a current period c, are drawn in
figure 2. In this example, the single kink in
each of the polyhedral technologies would
indicate that a single economy the only efficient
economy defines the frontier. - The two points (kb, yb) and (kc, yc), represent
observed values of the two ratios in the two
periods for some hypothetical economy.
12Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
y
Yc(kc)
D
T
Yc
Yc(kb)
E
C
Yb(kc)
Yb(kb
B
yb
A
kc
kb
k
- By construction, potential outputs for this
economy in the two periods are ?b(kb) yb/eb and
?c(kc) yc /ec, where eb and ec are the values
of the efficiency indexes in the two periods,
calculated as in (2) above.
13Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
. Therefore,
Multiplying top and bottom by ?b(kc), the
potential output-labor ratio at current-period
capital intensity using the base-period
technology, we obtain
This identity decomposes the relative change in
the output-labor ratio in the two periods into
(i) the change in efficiency i.e., the change
in the distance from the frontier (the first term
on the right) (ii) the technology change i.e.,
the shift in the frontier (the second term and
(iii) the effect of the change in the
capital-labor ratio-i.e., movement along the
frontier (the third term).
14Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
The decomposition in (4) measures technological
change by the shift in the frontier in the output
direction at the current-period capital-labor
ratio-from point C to point D in Figure 2 and it
measures the effect of capital accumulation along
the base-period frontier-from point B to point C.
we can alternatively measure technological change
at the base-period capital-labor ratio-from point
B to point E in Figure 2 -and capital
accumulation by movements along the
current-period frontier-from point E to point
D-by multiplying the top and bottom of (3) by the
potential output-labor ratio at base-period
capital intensity using the current-period
technology, ?c(kb), yielding the decomposition,
(5)
15Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
- Thus, the decomposition of (discrete)
productivity changes (not attributable to
efficiency changes) into the technological-change
and capital-deepening components is path
dependent, and the choice between (4) and (5) is
arbitrary. - There is no avoiding this arbitrariness, unless
technological change is Hicks neutral, in which
case the proportional vertical shift in the
frontier is independent of the value of the
capital-labor ratio. - It is this assumption (along with constant
returns to scale) that enabled Solow (1957), and
the legions of growth accountants who have
followed his lead, to unambiguously decompose
productivity growth into components attributable
to technological change and capital deepening. - But without constraining technological change to
be Hicks neutral, the proportional (vertical)
shift in the frontier varies in unspecified ways. - In fact, this arbitrariness is not, per se,
attributable to the decomposition itself. - It is endemic to the basic task of measuring
technological change, as is evident in the
necessity of normalizing on one of two
technologies in the (Malmquist) productivity
index proposed in the pioneering paper of
Doughlas W. Caves et al. (1982a).
16Endogenous Growth Model and the Brain Drain
Continuation
- Within this framework it is inferred that
technological innovation is a chronic disturber
of comparatives and the rules of the game are
rapidly changing. - The emerging trends have far reaching
implications for Africas sustainable development
and competitiveness. - Global firms are steadily upgrading their
technological capacity and performance and
progressively raising entry barriers to new
entrants. - In this process inefficient producers such as
African ones, are often squeezed out. - Africas competitiveness in its traditional
areas of comparative advantage is eroding. - This is well documented The continents share of
global export trade fell from 5.9 in 1980 to
less than 2 at the end of the 1990s, while
sub-Saharan Africas market share at global
manufacturing value added (MVA) was halved from
0.69 in 1970 to a low 0.3 in he 1990s. - Globalization and liberalization compel
companies to compete not only in foreign markets
in order to prosper, but also in their own
national markets. - Africa, therefore, needs to act promptly to
counter the possibilities of this double internal
and external squeeze.
17Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain
- CAUSES
- Push factors
- Pull factors
18Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain
Continuation
- PUSH FACTORS
- Focus on those pay, working conditions and
broader management and governance factors that
encourage professionals to exit their own systems
and leave their country.
- Low and eroding wages and salaries
- Unsatisfactory living conditions, lack of
transport, housing, etc - Under-utilization of qualified personnel lack of
satisfactory working conditions low prospect of
professional development - Lack of research and other facilities, including
support staff inadequacy of research funds, lack
of professional equipment and tools - Social unrest, Political conflicts and wars
- Declining quality of educational system
- Discrimination in appointments and promotions
- Lack of freedom
19Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain
Continuation
- PULL FACTORS
- Direct attention to the factors that encourage
professionals to move to - other countries, including shortages and active
recruitment from high - income countries.
- Higher wages and income
- Higher standard of living
- Better working conditions job and career
opportunities and professional development - Substantial funds for research, advanced
technology, modern facilities availability of
experienced support staff - Political stability
- Modern educational system prestige of foreign
training - Meritocracy, transparency
- Intellectual freedom
20Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain
- IMPACTS
- The brain drain crises can also be seen as a
process that Africa can theoretically capitalize
on. - Virtually all of Africas major export sectors
are struggling to compete on world markets, yet
without any policy effort whatsoever Africa has
demonstrated its competitiveness in the training
(or production) of doctors and nurses. - Such exports allow Africa to bypass the formal
trade facilitation challenges (from the world
trade organization) that so hamper exports. - The mobility of highly skilled labour is
associated with a number of positive feed back
effects as skilled emigrants continue to affect
the economy of their origin country. - The main benefits are associated with the
remittance of income, the knowledge and skills
acquired by returnees, and spillover effects when
migration increases the urge to obtain higher
education, increasing the stock of education in
the source country, with only a proportional of
this accumulation of skills lost to
out-migration (see mountfold 1997). - An illustration of these spill-over effects is
the degree in which the educational level of
applicants in nursing schools in Ghana has risen
to the equivalent entrance level and the number
of applicants has also risen sharply, as
applicants start to view a nursing qualification
as an investment in leaving the country (Mensah
et al. 200519).
21Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- The brain drain has brought harmful effects to
many countries as some of their best talents have
emigrated. - Some of the consequences have been lower rates
of growth, less productive educational
investments and poorer health care. - There has also been a loss of actual and
potential innovators who might have led the way
to modernization, as they migrated to educational
systems and working environments that better
supported their innovative and creative
abilities. - The conception about the migration of skills is
now evolving, putting stronger emphasis on brain
gain, which is based on the idea that the
expatriate skilled population may be considered
as a potential asset instead of a definite loss. - There are two main options to implement the
brain gain either through the return of the
expatriates to the country of origin (return
option) or through their remote mobilization and
association to its development (diaspora option)
. - The return option has been successfully realized
in various new industrialized countries (NICs)
such as Singapore and the republic of Korea or
big developing countries such as France and China
(Charum, Meyes eds, 1999). - Strong programmes to repatriate many of their
skilled nationals abroad have been put in place
since 1980.
22Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- The experience of the Asian countries like the
republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, can
provide very useful lessons from which African
countries can learn from. - These nations did set up incentive schemes and
mechanisms within a benign socio-economic
framework that helped to attract back home quite
a lot of their own highly trained expatriate
people from the various industrialized countries
who helped to fuel the revival of agriculture,
commerce, higher education and hi-tech research
within these nations and to transform them into
the so called newly industrializing countries
(MICS). - However, the IOM highlights difficulties of
facilitating return in relation to African
professionals abroad. - The challenges highlighted include prolonged job
search arising from cumbersome processes, lack of
trust in African government amongst the diaspora,
and weak government ownership. (IOM cited in
WHO/World Bank).
23Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- The diaspora option is based on network
approaches where a network can be defined as a
regular set of contacts or similar connections
among individual actors or groups (Granoveltes
and Suedberg 19229). - These networks of highly skilled expatriates are
referred to as expatriate knowledge networks. - The main feature of the diaspora option is that
it tries to set up connections/linkages between
highly skilled expatriates and between them and
the country of origin. - This allows for information and knowledge
exchange between expatriates and between them and
the country of origin. - It allows expatriates the opportunity to
transfer their expertise and skills to the
country of origin without necessarily returning
home permanently. - In this way the country of origin has access to
the knowledge and expertise of the expatriate,
but also the knowledge networks that he/she forms
part of in the host country. - A crucial element of the diaspora option is
therefore an effective system of information to
facilitate transfer and exchange of information
between network members and between them and
their counterparts in the country of origin. - Intellectual diaspora members therefore can
enable and promote collaboration with African
people, institutions and enterprises
24Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- However Diaspora Option requires good
organizations of networks to ensure communication
information exchange and coordinated actions. - This is where an interface or coordinating body
becomes necessary. - The function of such a coordinating body would be
to collect, organize and maintain the information
needed for the systematic search of partnerships,
but also o manage and promote the interests and
actions of the multiple entities in a network of
this kind. - Diaspora option is based on information transfer,
and studies have shown that, the next society
will be a knowledge society, enabled by the
rapidly developing information and communications
technology. According to Peter Drucker, it will
have highly competitive characteristics and will
use knowledge as a key resource. - Knowledge has become the most important factor
for international competitiveness, the creation
of wealth and the improvement of living
conditions. - The knowledge society will rely heavily on
knowledge workers, both traditional professionals
like doctors, scientists and engineers, and also
"knowledge technologists" such as IT technicians,
lab analysts and manufacturing experts, who need
a basis of theoretical knowledge acquired through
formal education.
25Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- Innovation, a knowledge-intensive endeavor,
requires creative people to put knowledge to
work. It also needs a favorable environment. - A culture of innovation has indeed become a
prerequisite of development in the 21st century. - "To understand peoples ability to innovate and
their ability to adapt to change", says a recent
report from UNESCO, "one has to take into account
the social and cultural components of innovation,
our environment - including our belief and value
systems - shapes the way we view the world around
us and determines how we react to ongoing change.
- Technological change has often-overlooked social
effect or consequence namely, it alters social
hierarchies and the power structure of groups
within society and in some cases society itself. - In order to understand peoples ability to
innovate and their ability to adapt to change,
one has to take into account the social and
cultural components of innovation. - In the end, these factors are the tools that
enable us to create a culture of innovation". - The experience of many countries has clearly
shown that the loss of high level people cannot
be stemmed successfully by restricting mobility,
but rather by a favorable political and economic
climate together with better work facilities,
adequate pay and advancement through merit. - This helps retain exceptional talents within the
country and utilize them for the countrys
benefit. It may also help to bring back some of
those who had previously emigrated.
26Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- Members of the intellectual Diaspora may be
induced to participate actively in new,
innovative productive ventures in the home
country. - Emigrants that have accumulated abundant capital,
developed novel technologies, and generated
successful enterprises may be willing to create
new ventures at home on the basis of such
resources, often in association with a local
partner, if there is true support for these
efforts. - A promotional mechanism and adequate incentives
may help here, such as has happened in Korea,
Taiwan and China, where the respective
governments have catalyzed and nurtured such
initiatives. - Several "brain exporting" countries have become
aware of these potential benefits, and are
attempting to organize their intellectual
Diasporas so as to better utilize their high
level nationals abroad. - This requires a significant effort to survey the
Diasporas human resources, create an active
network, and develop specific activities and
programs. - China, Colombia, South Africa (with the motto
transform brain drain into brain gain) and to a
lesser extent other countries are putting efforts
into this. - India has also embarked on a similar enterprise.
- It has begun the process admirably, and should
follow up with intensive, creative efforts to
connect the network in meaningful endeavors in
order to effectively assist the country.
27Managing the Drain.What are the options?
Continuation
- Even more can be done by identifying those
members of the Diaspora who have acquired
exceptional innovative capabilities, utilizing
them to spur the home country talents to a more
innovative level, and providing easier access,
open attitudes and opportunities to bring about
meaningful change. - Within the intellectual Diaspora, some
individuals have developed truly innovative
capabilities. We may call them Diaspora
innovators having acquired cultural traits and
specific knowledge that are essential to
innovation in science, technology, education and
entrepreneurship. - "Diaspora innovators" who have studied and worked
for extended periods in a modern, open innovative
environment have acquired different beliefs and
values from those of their original societies. - They view the world differently and are able to
react to ongoing changes in a more flexible,
dynamic and positive manner. - Many have acquired good managerial expertise and
technological competence, as well as "cultural
literacy (the ability to recognize and exploit
social, cultural, lifestyle, and ethnic
distinctions)" and "a reflexive approach to
knowledge and practices" (UNESCO). - These core competencies are crucial in creating a
culture of innovation. - Diaspora innovators indeed embody a specific
capital that may be tapped for the purpose of
building a culture of innovation in the home
country, and thus contribute to developing a
knowledge society there.
28Conclusions and Policy Implications
- Supply of well-qualified labour is a key
ingredient in the generation and diffusion of
innovation. Increased human capital not only
raises labour productivity, but also serves as a
driver of technological progress through a
significantly positive effect on business
sector RD. - The OECD Growth Study estimated that the long
run effect on GDP per capital of one additional
year of education ranges from 4 o 7 (OECD,
2003g). - Governments invest in its citizens human capital
through training and education and expect a
return on their investment when the individual
becomes economically and start paying taxes. - Within this perspective migration of highly
skilled human resources present a loss to the
sending country, because they loss out on returns
on the capital they invested in the individual. - However, the intellectual diaspora takes a
fundamentally different stance to traditional
perspectives on the brain drain in that it sees
the brain drain not as a loss but a potential
gain to the sending country.
29Conclusions and Policy Implications
Continuation
- To realize its full potential, there is need for
a democratization and domestication of
science and technology in Africa. - All key stakeholders must be involved, through
national dialogues, in the policy formulation and
implementation process, so as to transcend
policies that tend to be too narrowly focused on
a few number of isolated, ill-equipped and under
paid researched and academicians. - This will contribute to moving a way from
elitist policies, and to defining and
strengthening the respective role of public
institutions, international partners,
universities, NGOs, women organizations, civil
society and the private sector. - It would also ensure that policies are tailored
primarily with a view to meeting specific needs
of end-users and clients.
30Annex Reference Tables
Table 1.Emigration of Skilled Africans to
Industrialized Countries
Source IOM
Table 2 Intellectual Diaspora Network
31Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation
32Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation
33Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation
34Annex Reference Tables
Table 3 Country of medical school of sub-Saharan
African international medical graduates (IMGs)
in the US and Canada
Source Hagopiuan et al. (2004 5) Noteother 12
countries with at least one graduate in the
United States.
35Annex Reference Tables
Table 4 Overseas trained nurses registered per
annum in the UK 1998-2005 (Excluding the European
Union)
36Annex Reference Tables
Table 4 Continuation
Source NMC (2005). Listed by most numerous
country applicants in 2004-05
37THE ASSOCIATION OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),
Thank You
FOR THE OPPORTUNITY