INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE STUDENTS: Conflicts between Security and Science in the Issuing of Visas

1
INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE STUDENTSConflicts
between Security and Science in the Issuing of
Visas

• Dr. John V. Richardson Jr.
• Associate Dean, UCLA Graduate Division
• Winter 2005

2
INTERNATIONAL STUDENT ENROLLMENT DECLINES
Comparison of Fall 2004 and Fall 2003 Graduate
Enrollment International Students by
School/Division
SOURCE UCLA Graduate Division, IRIS (Dr. Pamela
Taylor, 310.825.6453)
3
GRADUATE APPLICATIONS DECLINE
March 1, 2004 March 1, 2005
Total Applications 19,215 17,463
Domestic 13,086 11,869
International  6,129 5,594

• Total Applications are down by 9.1
• Domestic Applications are down by 9.3
• International Applications are down by 8.7
•  
• Applications from
• the PRC are down by 19 (1694 to 1371)
• Taiwan are down by 3 (789 to 763)
• India are down by 15 (826 to 702)
• Korea are down by 6.7 (984 to 918)
• Japan are down by18 (357 to 292)
• SOURCE Dan Bennett (Graduate Admissions) and
  Mats Granlund (IRIS)

4
A SERIOUS PROBLEM NATIONALLY

• Decline in applications
• Decline in offers
• Decline in acceptances
• This is a serious problem
  for our country
• according to Dr. Peter D. Spear, Provost at the
  University of Wisconsin (New York Times, 10
  November 2004)

5
MULTIPLE REASONS

• Increase in Non-Resident Tuition (NRT)
• EUs Higher Education Zone (2010)
• English instruction in Hong Kong, Singapore,
  Australia and New Zealand
• Growing educational infrastructure in China,
  India, and elsewhere
• GRE suspensions
• Attitudes and perceptions of visa process
• Visa denials

6
INCREASE IN NRT AT UCLA
UCLA Graduate Student Total Annual Mandatory Fees
1995-present
7
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
8
EU HEADS OF STATE (LISBON, 2000)

• Meeting in Lisbon in March 2000, heads of state
  set an ambitious ten-year goal for a united
  Europe, to have
• The most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based
  economy in the world by 2010 (European
  Commission)

9
EUS AREA OF HIGHER EDUCATION

• Aka the Bologna Process, Sorbonne Declaration,
  Prague Communiqué, and Berlin Communiqué
• The Bologna Process articulated multiple
  objectives of increased mobility, improved
  employability, and a more attractive and
  competitive area with
• Harmonization by 2010 on the following
• English language instruction, joint degrees, a
  common transcript, and internships
• SOURCE http//www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/Universi
  ty/BolognaProcess/default.htm
  (accessed 30 November 2004)

10
HONG KONG

• HKs University Grants Committee makes awards to
  8 universities based on 3 exercises
• Research Assessment Exercise,
• Teaching and Learning Quality Program Review, and
  
• Management Review
• 5 B Technology and Innovation Fund established
  in November 1997
• SOURCE http//www.ugc.edu.hk/english/documents/tl
  qpr.html and http//www.chamber.org.hk/memberarea/
  chamber_view/policy_statement_template.asp?id440

11
SINGAPORE

• Singapore has 3 universities (National University
  Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, and
  Singapore Management University) plus
• 4 polytechnics (Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Republic
  Polytechnic, Singapore Polytechnic, and Temasek
  Polytechnic), and
• One institute (Institute of Technical Education)
• SOURCE http//www.moe.gov.sg/corporate/post_secon
  dary.htm

12
SOUTH KOREA

• Its Education Ministry wishes to nearly triple
  the number of its international students
• Growth from17,000 to 50,000 in the next five
  years
• Korean website (www.studyinkorea.go.kr)
• Increases number of scholarships by 25 percent
  next year
• Promises to streamline student visa process
• 85 of its foreign students are from Asian
  countries
• SOURCE Alan Brender, South Korean Seeks Huge
  Increaser in Number of Foreign Students,
  Chronicle of Higher Education 51 (4 March 2005)
  A36.

13
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

• In 2003, Australia enrolled 539 international
  students in the natural sciences, engineering,
  and information technology 108 are from China
  about 45 in science and 30 in engineering from
  India
• Online visa application for study in Australia
• Higher education is a 5B industry for Australia
• SOURCE Mervis, Science, May 2004 and
  http//www.immi.gov.au/e_visa

14
FIRST US DECLINE SINCE 1971

• Uninterrupted enrollment growth in international
  students for three decades
• 2.4 percent decline in fall 2003
• SOURCE Institute of International Education,
  Open Doors 2004
• http//opendoors.iienetwork.org

15
GRE SUSPENSIONS

• In 2002, ETS suspended GRE General Test in China,
  South Korea, and Taiwan due to widespread
  cheating as evidenced by monthly scalloping of
  scores
• From Fall 2002 to Spring 2003, ETS suspended GRE
  Computer Science in China and India due to
  sharing of questions
• In April 2003, ETS suspended GMAT, GRE, TOEFL,
  and other tests in China for two months due to
  SARS
• SOURCE Mervis, Science May 2004 citing David
  Payne at ETS (Princeton, NJ) and
  http//www.ets.org/news/archive.html

16
FEWER GRE EXAM TAKERS

• Percentage change from 2002/03 to 2003/2004
• India, down 56
• China, down 51
• South Korea, down 28
• Re-start of GRE on paper takers still down
• SOURCE ETS U.S. Slips in Status as Global Hub
  of Higher Education, New York Times, 21 December
  2004, p. A1 and A19.

17
ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS

• Response to 9/11
• America is for Americans
• America is less safe (crime and popular culture)
• New languages and cultures are a threat
• No one will speak my language
• Long visa delays (of the past)
• Its not worth queuing up for two days outside
  the U.S. consulate
• High likelihood of (type of) visa denial
• Visas are hard to get

18
PERCEPTUAL CHANGES,1999 TO 2003

• SOURCE Office of Research, State Department
  Pew Center for the People and the Press at
  http//people-press.org/reports/display.php3?Repor
  tID175  (2003)

19
A TYPICAL GRADUATE STUDENT

• Top recruit
• Admit offer
• Returns SIR
• Financial Documentation
• Issue I-20
• Next

20
UCLA INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS, 2001
Fall 2001 Total Campus Registrants of
International Graduate Students by Country of
Citizenship or Region (Students with temporary
visas only)
21
UCLA INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS, 2001
Fall 2001 Total Campus Registrants of
International Graduate Students by Field and
School (Students with temporary visas only)
22
BUREAU OF CONSULAR AFFAIRS (STATE)

• CA administers laws, writes regulations and
  implements policies relating to a broad range of
  consular services including issuing visas and
  travel advisories.
• Funded predominately by fee collections
• Processed 8M visa applications with a staff of
  400 in 1990 up to 10M with 600 staff in 2001
• Mexico City and Seoul process the majority of
  non-immigrant visas (NIV)
• SOURCE GAO State OIG ISP I 03 26 (December 2002)

23
WHAT IS A VISA?

• If youre a citizen of a foreign country, in
  most cases youll need a visa to enter the United
  States.
• A visa doesnt permit entry to the U.S.,
  however. A visa simply indicates that your
  application has been reviewed by a U.S. consular
  officer at an American embassy or consulate, and
  that the officer has determined youre eligible
  to enter the country for a specific purpose.
  Consular affairs are the responsibility of the
  U.S. Department of State.
• A visa allows you to travel to the United States
  as far as the port of entry (airport or land
  border crossing) and ask the immigration officer
  to allow you to enter the country. Only the
  immigration officer has the authority to permit
  you to enter the United States. He or she decides
  how long you can stay for any particular visit.
  Immigration matters are the responsibility of the
  U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
• SOURCE http//www.unitedstatesvisas.gov/whatis/in
  dex.html

24
VISAS ISSUED, 1995 TO PRESENT

• All Non Immigrant Visas F1, J1, and M1
• 1995, 6.18M TBS
• 1996, 6.23M TBS
• 1997, TBS TBS
• 1998, TBS TBS
• 1999, TBS 480,131
• 2000, TBS 526,997
• 2001, 7.58M 560,499
• 2002, 5.76M 492,279
• 2003, 4.81M 473,716
• 2004, 5.05M 478,219
• SOURCE TBSTO BE SUPPLIED US State Department,
  Visa Office, February 2005

25
STUDENT EXCHANGE VISITOR INFORMATION SYSTEM
(DHS/ICE)

• Aka SEVIS, required by Congress in 2002 under the
  Enhanced Border SecurityAct
• 1 August 2003 deadline for entering all
  international students into this system
• ATLAS, Newfront enterprise software, version 6.1
  for managing student data

26
APPLICANT CALLS POST FOR

• An appointment in the proper consular district
  and then
• Waits (wait was generally 2 weeks or more)
  since FY2003 students, however, are given
  priority appointments
• Their student data must be in SEVIS first
• Interviewed in person by the postand may
  require
• Form I-20 AB Certificate of Eligibility for
  Nonimmigrant (i.e., F-1) Student Status or
• Form DS-2019 Certificate of Eligibility for
  Nonimmigrant Visitor (i.e., J-1) Status
• Form DS-156 Non-immigrant Visa Application and,
  if male, then a
• Form DS-157 Supplemental Non-immigrant Visa
  Application (both are electronic)
• Form I-901 Fee Remittance for Certain F, J, and
  M Nonimmigrants
• Includes a photograph and a quick fingerprint
  scan
• Payment of fees (for example, 100 application
  fee, 100 SEVIS fee, plus any reciprocal fee)
• SOURCE US GAO 04371 and http//www.ice.gov/graph
  ics/sevis/pdf/I-901.pdf and State

27
JURIDICAL PERSONS (PASSPORTS)

• Identification (who you say that you are)
• Validation (who you really are)
• Since the 18th Century, nation states have tried
  to control the internal as well as external
  movement of citizens and foreigners
• SOURCE Torpey, Invention of Passports (2004)

28
SEVERAL PROBLEMATIC PASSPORTS

• SOURCE Google Images

29
STATE SPONSORED TERRORISM (STATE)

• 6 nation states which sponsor terrorism, as of
  2005
• Cuba
• Iran
• Libya
• North Korea
• Sudan
• Syria
• SOURCE http//www.state.gov/s/ct and 9 FAM
  40.31, Exhibit II http//www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/p
  gtrpt/2000/2441.htm and http//foia.state.gov/mast
  erdocs/09FAM/0940031X2.PDF
• (Iraq was removed in 2004)

30
CONSULAR POST

• Each embassy or consulate abroad offers its own
  free advice, guidelines, how-to, and other tips
  on their own Websites at
• http//www.unitedstatesvisas.gov and
• Links to U.S. Embassies and Consulates
  Worldwide at http//travel.state.gov/travel/abroa
  d_embassies.html

31
CONSULAR OFFICER

• What does a consular officer do?
• acquire expertise in local laws, economic
  conditions, political situation and culture to
  make informed and rapid decisions affecting US
  citizens abroad
• help American citizens obtain emergency medical
  assistance
• evacuate American citizens as disasters or armed
  conflicts require
• visit arrested Americans and ensure they have
  access to legal counsel
• Re-issue passports to US citizens
• screen foreign visa applicants and decide whether
  to issue or deny visa to travel to the U.S. port
  of entry
• SOURCE http//www.careers.state.gov/officer/co.ht
  ml

32
A CONSULAR INTERVIEW

• INTERVIEWER Why do you want to go and study in
  our country?
• INTERVIEWEE Well, sirI thinkhm, eh, I mean
  going abroad will allow me to be more
  knowledgeable, and hm, it will provide me with
  necessary tools that can help me with my future
  career. Also, by going abroad to studyI think I
  can learn more about other people.
• INTERVIEWER Are you saying you cant learn all
  those things in this country?
• INTERVIEWEE No sir.
• INTERVIEWER OK, why do you want to go and study
  in our country?
• INTERVIEWEE I would like to go there to further
  my study and because I have some friends who are
  studying there right now.
• SOURCE Olaniran and Williams (1995) 230-231

33
CLASS (State)

• Consular Lookout And Support System (CLASS), a
  watch list and every visa applicant must be name
  checked prior to adjudication and issuance
• A name check database consisting of 20 million
  records of visa refusals, immigration
  violations, and terrorism concerns
• Reviews name, DOB, and nationality in the
  database
• A fuzzy logic query returns either of two
  results
• Negative record (i.e., high likelihood of visa
  without further investigation)
• Positive (i.e., a derogatory means potential
  ineligibility)
• A negative record means the visa can be printed
• However, a positive hit may invoke an Security
  Advisory Opinion (SAO)
• SOURCE 9 FAM Appendix D and Tony Edson, Head of
  VISA Office State, 10 January 2005

34
CONSULAR CONSOLIDATED DATABASE

• Consular Consolidated Database (CCD), a database
  of visa applications, non-immigrant visas, US
  passports, service to American citizens abroad
• Which interacts with uploaded SEVIS information
  (i.e., Forms I-20 or DS-2019)
• I-20, application form for F-1 visa, identifying
  the field of study, length of study, and
  reporting date
• DS-2019, application form for J-1 visa
• 80 M records, 40M of which have biometric facial
  photos and can be run against face matching
  software

35
SECURITY ADVISORY OPINION

• Aka SAO simply, a written opinion from
  Washington on students clearance
• Only 2.5 of all visas require SAOs (Maura
  Harty, Assistant Secretary of State for Consular
  Affairs)
• Approval comes as a cable for example, "Donkey
  Mantis 99 State 99999".

36
SAO (State)

• Security Advisory Opinion may involve
• Central Intelligence Agency
• Commerce Department
• Department of Defense
• Department of Homeland Security
• Drug Enforcement Agency
• Federal Bureau of Investigations Investigative
  Division (response database as well as its
  National Criminal Information Center (NCIC))
• Interpol
• State Departments Bureau of Non-proliferation
• Treasurys Office of Foreign Asset Control and
  Secret Service
• And any other agencies which report back to the
  State Department within 15 days, and which then
  prepares and forwards it to the post
• SOURCE http//travel.state.gov/visa/testimony10.
  html GAO 04-371 (February 2004)

37
(State)

• Now classified official use only aka critical
  fields list covers 200 scientific and technical
  fields
• In August 2002, TALs last public iteration
  included 16 areas advanced ceramics, advanced
  computer/microelectronic technology aircraft and
  missile propulsion and vehicular systems
  chemical and biotechnology engineering
  conventional munitions high-performance metals
  and alloys information security laser and
  directed energy systems marine technology
  materials technology navigation and guidance
  control nuclear technology remote imaging and
  reconnaissance robotics and sensors.
• As recently as November 2000, the list included
  conventional munitions, nuclear technology,
  rocket systems and unmanned vehicles, navigation,
  avionics and flight control chemical,
  biotechnical and biomedical engineering remote
  sensing advanced computer and microelectronic
  technology materials technology information
  security laser and directed energy systems
  sensors and sensor technology marine technology
  robotics and urban planning.
• SOURCE 9 FAM 40.31, Appendix 1 August 2002
  http//foia.state.gov/masterdocs/09fam/0940031X1.p
  df

38
VISAS MANTIS (codeword1)

• Dating from the cold war, involves illegal
  technology transfer
• Cablegrams are urgent telegrams
• According to 9 FAM 300, App. E
• Mantis criteria, illegal transfer of sensitive
  technology
• Codeword1 according to 9 FAM 300, App. E
• Bear, foreign government officials
• Condor, special target demographic male
  national between the ages of 16 and 45 from a
  classified list of countries (Section 306)
• Donkey, derogatory watch list information (CLASS
  hit)
• Eagle, name check for certain nationalities (such
  as Peoples Republic of China nationals applying
  in China or Russian nationals applying in Russia)
• SOURCE State OIG, Memo Report ISP-I-03-26 Tony
  Edson, 10 December 2004

39
VISAS MANTIS (State)

• Started in January 1998 in its current form
• See Maura Harty, Assistant Secretary of States
  Op Ed Piece in Chronicle of Higher Education, 8
  October 2004
• Concern is Illegal transfer of sensitive
  technology
• Five full-time from BCA, State employees help
  ensure the process moves smoothly, with more in
  other agencies which actually do the clearance
• Backlogs of 2K cases in the summer of 2002 peaks
  in late December 2003 (see next slide)
• Wait times are now posted for individual
  consulates
• China is the largest source of MANTIS cases
• Expedited clearing is possible
• SOURCE http//usinfo.state.gov/gi/Archive/2004/Fe
  b/27-585249.html http//travel.state.gov/visa/tes
  timony10.html

40
MANTIS SAO BACKLOGS DECLINE
Average Time to Clear Mantis SAOs by Month as of
1/3/2005 VISTA Data
41
IMMIGRATION AND NATIONALITY ACT

• P.L. 82-414 8 USC 1101 et seq.
• This 1952 Act has been amended numerous times
  including
• Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant
  Responsibility Act of 1996
• The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 (FBI access)
• Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act of
  2002 and
• Homeland Security Act of 2002.
• SOURCE www.uscis.gov

42
INA 214 (b) VISA DENIALS

• Every alien shall be presumed to be an immigrant
  until he establishes to the satisfaction of the
  consular officer, at the time of application for
  admission, that he is entitled to a nonimmigrant
  status...
• WHAT CONSTITUTES "STRONG TIES"?
• Strong ties differ from country to country, city
  to city, individual to individual. Some examples
  of ties can be a job, a house, a family, a bank
  account. Ties are the various aspects of your
  life that bind you to your country of residence
  your possessions, employment, social and family
  relationships.
• SOURCE http//travel.state.gov/visa/frvi_denials
  .html

43
P.L. 107-173

• Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform
  Act of 2002
• America is not a fortress no, we never want to
  be a fortress. We're a free country we're an
  open society. And we must always protect the
  rights of our law--of law-abiding citizens from
  around the world who come here to conduct
  business or to study or to spend time with their
  family, according to President Bush on 14 May
  2002.
• Title 3 (Visa Issuance), Section 306 State
  Sponsored Terrorism
• State met the 26 October 2004 deadline for
  biometric finger scans of all visa applicants
  also done at port of entry (POE)
• SOURCE http//frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/g
  etdoc.cgi?dbname107_cong_public_lawsdocidfpubl
  173.107

44
SUCCESSVISA IS ISSUED

• Waiting for an approved
• I-129 Petition for a Non-immigrant Worker
• I-797 Notice of Action
• from the DHS, Bureau of Citizenship and
  Immigration Services

45
FY 2003 F-1 VISA DENIALS (GAO)
Nationality F-1 Issued F-1 Refused F Workload Rough Estimate of Refused
South Korea 34,697 8,119 42,816 18.96
China (and Taiwan) 31,322 22,995 54,317 42.33
Japan 25,962 1,387 27,349 5.07
India 20,320 17,973 38,293 46.94
Brazil 7,625 1,761 9,386 18.76
Germany 5,376 1,122 6,498 17.27
Great Britain 3,536 874 4,410 19.82
Russia 1,645 1,325 2,970 44.61
Poland 1,243 906 2,149 42.16
All others 103,853 71,733 175,586 40.85
TOTAL 235,579 128,195 363,774 35.24
46
FY 2003 J-1 VISA APPROVALS (GAO)
Nationality J visas issued J visas refused J workload Rough Estimate of Approved
South Korea 14,218 1,507 15,725 90.4
China (mainland and Taiwan) 10,171 7,003 17,174 59.2
Japan 11,377 305 11,682 97.4
India 5,311 1,718 7,029 75.6
Brazil 8,297 520 8,817 94.1
Germany 22,600 923 23,523 96.1
Great Britain 17,354 1,052 18,406 94.3
Russia 17,185 8,412 25,597 67.1
Poland 20,675 2,637 23,312 88.7
All others 156,472 30,537 187,009 83.4
Total 283,660 54,614 338,274 83
47
COMPUTER ASSISTED PASSENGER PRESCREENING PROGRAM
II (TSA)

• 15 minutes before departure airline manifest is
  shared with US government
• Proposed on January 2003, CAPPS II (Passenger and
  Aviation Security Screening Records) would
  compare passenger recordsagainst commercial
  data-bases such as Lexis-Nexis and Acxiom, using
  name, home address and telephone, and DOBand
  then national security information looking for
  criminal and terrorist records.
• Would score all passengers, but especially non-US
  citizens, with a number and a color
• Currently, cash customers and one-way ticket
  purchases are subject to secondary screening
  SSS or is marked on the boarding pass
• SOURCE http//www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?conte
  nt1115

48
PORT OF ENTRY

• Your passport, valid for at least six months
  beyond the date of your expected stay
• With the attached envelope When you receive your
  nonimmigrant visa at a U.S. embassy or consulate,
  the consular officer will seal your immigration
  documents in an envelope and attach it to your
  passport. You should not open this envelope! The
  Customs and Border Protection Officer at the U.S.
  Port of Entry will open the envelope and
• SEVIS Form I-20.
• In addition, it is strongly recommended that you
  also hand carry the following documentation
• Evidence of financial resources
• Evidence of student status, such as recent
  tuition receipts and transcripts
• Paper receipt for the SEVIS fee, Form I-797, and
• Name and contact information for your Designated
  School Official, including a 24-hour emergency
  contact number at the school.
• If Arriving By Air Flight attendants will
  distribute Customs Declaration Forms (CF-6059)
  and Arrival Departure Record Forms (I-94). These
  must be completed prior to landing.
• SOURCE http//www.ice.gov/graphics/sevis/factshe
  et/100104ent_stdnt_fs.htm

49
PORT OF ENTRY DIGITAL SCREENING

• US-VISIT (United States Visitor and Immigrant
  Status Indicator Technology) involves
• Inkless, digital finger scanner captures scans
  of left and right index fingers.
• Officer then takes a digital photograph.
• Biographic and biometric data are used to match
  identity against State Department data acquired
  when visa was issued.
• SOURCE DHS More Ports of Entry to Use Digital
  Screening, LA Times, 4 January 2005, p. A14.

50
THINGS TO AVOID

• Congressional offices cannot expedite visas
• Embassies and consulates probably should not be
  contacted directly about particular visa
  applications

51
APPLICANT RECOMMENDATIONS

• Applicants should consistently use their passport
  name on all other official documentation
• Follow the recommendations and tips at
  http//travel.state.gov for the US consular
  office which has jurisdiction

52
FACULTY RECOMMENDATIONS

• On international trips, give a talk about getting
  into US graduate schools
• Make earlier departmental decisions
• Increase departmental support to international
  students
• Goal change perception that the US is not
  welcoming and that visas are hard to get

53
DEAN RECOMMENDATIONS

• NRT waivers and IELTS/TOEFL inter-changeability
• Propose paying for SEVIS fee
• Support staff membership in NAFSA
• Consider visiting US Congress on macro visa
  topics
• Representative (Boehner, R-OH Lugar, R-IN)
• Senator (Gregg, R-NH Kennedy, D-MA)
• Members, Committee on Government Reform

54
UNIVERSITY STAFF RECOMMENDATIONS

• Encourage applicants to use name on passport
  consistently on all official documents
• Campaign for NRT waivers
• Consider writing US Congress re macro issues
• Representative
• Senator
• Members, Committee on Government Reform

55
FURTHER QUESTIONS

• What else would you like to know about?
• What other questions do you have?

56
READINGS

• Barr, Stephen. At Foreign Service, Road to the
  Top Will Run Through Hardship Posts, The
  Washington Post, 10 December 2004, p. B2.
• Brender, Alan. South Korean Seeks Huge
  Increaser in Number of Foreign Students,
  Chronicle of Higher Education 51 (4 March 2005)
  A36
• Brown, Heath A. and Syverson, Peter D.
  International Graduate Admissions Survey Program.
  Washington, DC Council of Graduate Schools,
  Summer 2004.
• Freedman, Samuel G. Grad Schools International
  Glow Dims, New York Times, 27 October 2004.
• Gordon, Charles Stanley Mailman and Stephen
  Yale-Loeh. Immigration Law Procedure.
  Matthew Bender, 2004.
• Hanassab, Shideh and Tidwell, Romeria.
  International Students in Higher Education
  Identification of Needs and Implications for
  Policy and Practice, Journal of Studies in
  International Education 6 (Winter 2002) 305-322.
• Harty, Maury. US Visa Policy Securing Borders
  and Opening Doors, Washington Quarterly 28
  (Spring 2005) 23-34.
• Hunt, Gaillard . The American passport its
  history and a digest of laws, rulings and
  regulations governing its issuance Washington,
  DC GPO, 1898.
• Mervis, Jeffrey. Is the U.S. Brain Gain
  Faltering? Science 304 (no. 5675, 28 May 2004)
  1278-1282.
• Olaniran, Bolanle A.  and Williams, David
  E. Communication Distortion An Intercultural
  Lesson from the Visa Application Process,
  Communication Quarterly 43 n2 (Spring 1995)
  225-40.

57
EVEN MORE READINGS

• Reid, T.R. The United States Of Europe The New
  Superpower and the End of American Supremacy .
  New York Penguin, 2004.
• Selvaratnam, Viswanathan. Innovations in Higher
  Education. Singapore at the Competitive Edge.
  Washington, D.C. The World Bank, 1994.
• Stimpson, Catharine. Foreign Students Need Not
  Apply, CGS Communicator 39, no. 9 (November
  2003) 1, 4.
• Torpey, John et al. The Invention of the
  Passport Surveillance, Citizenship and the
  State. Cambridge CUP, 2000.
• U.S. Department of State, Office of the Inspector
  General. Review of Nonimmigrant Visa Issuance
  Policy and Procedure. Memorandum Report
  ISP-I-03-26. Washington, DC December 2002.
• U.S. Department of State, Technology Alert
  List, 9 FAM 40.31, Exhibit I.
• U.S. Department of State, Office of the
  Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Overview of
  State-Sponsored Terrorism (30 April 2001).
• U.S. Congress. House of Representatives.
  Dealing with Foreign Students and Scholars in an
  Age of Terrorism Visa Backlogs and Tracking
  Systems. Hearing before the Committee on
  Science. House of Representatives, One Hundred
  Eighth Congress, First Session (March 26, 2003).

58
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• In UCLAs Graduate Division Dan Bennett
  (Graduate Admissions/Student Academic Affairs),
  Mats Granlund (IRIS), Ken Hill (GEL), Jacqueline
  Nagatsuka (IRIS), Pamela Taylor (IRIS), Jim
  Turner (former AVC), and Mary Watkins (IRIS)
• In UCLAs Graduate Student Association Amanda
  Moussa and Michelle Sugi and
• At US State Department Kelly Shannon and Stephen
  Tony Edson (Head of Visa Services).