Politics

1
Politics

• Now out of favor
• Still matters
• Aristotles master science

2
Nation or State?

• A nation is a population with a certain sense of
  itself, a cohesiveness, a commonality of
  attitudes and ideals, and often a common
  language.
• A state is a government structure, usually
  sovereign and powerful enough to enforce its
  writ.

3
The Elements of Nationhood

• Territory
• Population
• Independence
• Government

4
The Crises of Nation Building

• Identity
• Legitimacy
• Penetration
• Participation
• Distribution

5
Classifying Governments

• Laissez-faire
• Welfare state
• Statism
• Socialism

6
AristotlesSix Types of Government

• Legitimate forms Rule in interest of all
• - Monarchy
• - Aristocracy
• - Polity
• Corrupt forms Rule in interest of selves
• - Tyranny
• - Oligarchy
• - Democracy

7
State Power

• The state as agent of modernization
• Subsystem autonomy or pluralism
• Centralization of political power
• - Unitary systems
• - Federalism

8
Dahls Influence Terms

• Rational persuasion
• Manipulative persuasion
• Inducement
• Power
• Coercion
• Physical Force

9
Making Public Policy

• Symbolic policy
• Tangible policy

10
An Interdisciplinary Study

• History
• Human Geography
• Economics
• Sociology
• Anthropology
• Psychology

11
Power

• Distinguishing feature of political science
• Ability of one person to get another to do
  something

12
Explanations of Political Power

• Biological
• Psychological
• Cultural
• Rational
• Irrational
• Power as a composite

13
Key Power Concepts

• Legitimacy
• Sovereignty
• Authority

14
An Empirical Science

• Hypothesis
• Quantified data
• Qualitative data

15
Scholarly Work

• Reasoned
• Balanced
• Supported by evidence

16
Politicians

• Love power
• Seek popularity
• Practical thinking
• Hold firm views
• Offer single causes
• See short-term payoff
• Plan for next election
• Respond to groups
• Seek name recognition

17
Political Scientists

• Skeptical of power
• Seek accuracy
• Abstract thinking
• Reach tentative conclusions
• Offer many causes
• See long-term consequences
• Plan for next publication
• Seek good of whole
• Seek professional prestige

18
Politics and Society

• Percolating up
• Dripping down

19
Classic Theories

• Plato
• Aristotle
• Machiavelli
• The contractualists
• Hegel
• Marxism
• Institutionalism

20
Not Just Europeans

• Confucius
• Kautilya
• Ibn Khaldun

21
The Contractualists

• Hobbes
• Locke
• Rousseau

22
Marxist Theories

• Economics
• Social Class
• History

23
Contemporary Theories

• Behavioralism
• -Postbehavioralism
• Systems theory
• Modernization theory
• Rational-choice theory
• - Game theory
• New institutionalism

24
Eastons Systems Model

• Key parts
• - Inputs
• - Black box conversion process
• - Outputs
• - Feedback link
• May be too static
• Unable to handle upheaval
• Should it be modified?

25
Modified Systems Model

• Conversion process first
• Black box contains withinputs
• Better reflects complexity of reality

26
Model

• Simplified picture of reality
• Used to order data, theorize and predict
• Risk of oversimplifying

27
Constitutions

• Are written documents stating the fundamental
  rules by which a political system is governed.
• Should not be changed too often.
• Are the highest law of the land.
• Limit the power of government.

28
Constitutional Law

• Subject to interpretation
• Judicial review
• - Judicial activism
• - Judicial restraint

29
Purposes of a Constitution

• States national ideals
• Formalizes structure of government
• Establishes legitimacy of government

30
U.S. Constitution

• Separation of powers
• Checks and balances

31
Adaptability of U.S. Constitution

• The right to bear arms
• The growth of big government

32
What is a Right?

• Human rights
• Civil rights
• Economic rights

33
Ensuring Rights

• Civil liberties
• Civil rights
• Minority rights

34
Freedom of Expression

• First Amendment right
• Highly context-dependent
• Some limits

35
Sedition

• Incitement to public disorder or to overthrow the
  state
• Twentieth-century Sedition Acts
• - Espionage Act
• - Smith Act
• - McCarran Act (Internal Security Act)

36
Spectrum of Government Power

• Perfect democracy
• - Power in hands of the people
• Democracy
• Limited democracy
• Authoritarianism
• Totalitarianism
• Perfect totalitarianism
• - All power held by government

37
Democracy

• From the Greek demokratía
• - demos people
• - kratía government
• True democracy
• Representative democracy

38
Elements of Democracy

• Popular accountability of government
• Political competition
• Alternation in power
• Popular representation
• Majority decision
• Right of dissent and disobedience
• Political equality
• Popular consultation
• Free press

39
Democracy in Practice

• Elitism
• Pluralism

40
Totalitarianism

• All-encompassing ideology
• A single party
• Organized terror
• Monopoly of communications
• Monopoly of weapons
• Controlled economy

41
Right-Wing Totalitarianism

• Italian Fascism
• German National Socialism

42
Authoritarianism

• Dilutes totalitarianism
• Governed by small group
• Does not attempt to control everything
• Rarely has firm ideology to sell
• Institutes command, obedience, order
• Has strict, hierarchical chain-of-command
• Allows little to no voice for citizens
• Has some trappings of democracy, with little
  function

43
Latest Wave of Democracy

• Authoritarian regimes that enjoyed strong
  economic growth
• Collapsed Communist regimes whose economic growth
  lagged

44
Theory of Democratic Peace

• No two democracies have ever fought each other.
• If true, a more democratic world means a more
  peaceful world.

45
Ideology

• Belief system that society can be improved by
  following certain doctrines
• Usually ends in ism
• Typically gives rise to other ideologies

46
Classifying Ideologies

• Left
• - favors equality, welfare programs, and
  sometimes government intervention in the economy
• Right
• - stresses individual initiative and private
  economic activity
• Center
• - tries to synthesize and moderate the views of
  both the left and the right

47
The Major Ideologies

• Classic liberalism
• Classic conservatism
• Modern liberalism
• Modern conservatism
• Marxist socialism
• Social democracy
• Communism
• Nationalism
• Fascism

48
Modern Liberalism and Conservatism

• Modern liberalism is an ideology favoring
  government intervention to correct economic and
  social ills.
• Modern conservatism is an ideology founded in the
  classic liberalism of Adam Smith to keep
  government out of the economy.

49
Karl Marx

• Leading socialist thinker
• Wrote The Communist Manifesto and Capital
• Focused on ills and malfunctions of capitalism
• Variously interpreted by others

50
Offshoots of Marxism

• Social democracy
• Anarcho-syndicalism
• - Unions running everything
• Lenin/Stalin hypercentralized tyranny
• Trotskys denunciation of Leninism/Stalinism
• Maos self-destructive permanent revolution
• Titos experimental decentralized system

51
Communism

• Imperialism
• Organization
• Maoism
• Titoism

52
Nationalism

• Exaggerated belief in greatness and unity of
  ones country
• Still dominant today
• Often born out of occupation and repression by
  foreigners
• Perceives an enemy to struggle against
• Most intense in third-world nations
• Tends to economic isolation
• Depends on emotional appeals
• May be regional

53
Ideology in Our Day

• The collapse of communism
• Neoconservatism
• Libertarianism
• Feminism
• Environmentalism
• Islamism

54
Is Ideology Finished?

• Daniel Bell The failure of tyrannical communism
  and the rise of the welfare state produced the
  end of ideology.
• Francis Fukuyama Not only has the great
  ideological debate ended with the victory of
  capitalist democracy, but history itself could be
  ending.

55
Political Culture

• The psychology of a nation in regard to politics
• Varies considerably from one nation to another
• Determined by history, economy, religion and
  folkways
• A collective political memory
• Determines how a people interprets the proper
  role of government and how that government
  operates

56
Political Culture and Public Opinion

• Political culture looks for basic, general values
  on politics and government.
• Public opinion looks for views about specific
  leaders and policies.

57
Participation in America

• Rule of anticipated reactions
• Low voter turnout
• Strong faith in democracy

58
The Civic Culture

• Participant
• Subject
• Parochial

59
Decay of Political Culture

• More cynicism
• Declining voter turnout
• Growth of distrust in government

60
Different Cultures

• Elite culture
• Mass culture
• Subcultures

61
Political Socialization

• The learning of culture
• May be formally taught or absorbed by imitating
  others
• Crucial to stable government

62
Agents of Socialization

• Family
• School
• Peer groups
• Mass media
• Government

63
Public Opinion

• Citizens reaction to current, specific issues
  and events
• Plays a major role in modern democracy
• Different from political culture
• An array of diverse attitudes that can change
  quickly
• Sometimes shows widespread ignorance
• Often led or manipulated by interest groups
• Any government vulnerable to it

64
Salience

• Literally, that which jumps out
• The importance of given issues in public opinion
  or the characteristics of publics holding various
  opinions
• The degree to which categories and issues affect
  public opinion

65
Shaping Public Opinion

• Social class
• Education
• Region
• Religion
• Age
• Gender
• Ethnic group

66
Classic Opinion Curves

• Skewed
• Unimodal or Bell-Shaped
• Bimodal

67
Polling Techniques

• Selecting a sample
• Reaching the sample
• Asking the questions

68
Sample

• Those persons to be interviewed in a survey
• A small fraction of a population
• Should be as representative, rather than as
  large, as possible

69
Presidential Ratings

• Honeymoon
• Rally events
• The economy

70
Three Publics

• General public
• Attentive public
• Policy and opinion elite

71
Public Opinion Polls

• Are they fair?
• Help make public opinion
• May distort an election
• Not neutral in their impact
• Not a substitute for careful analysis of issues

72
Interest Group

• Any collection of people tying to influence
  government
• Nonpublicly accountable organizations that
  attempt to promote shared private interests by
  influencing public-policy outcomes

73
Interest Groups Differfrom Political Parties

• Goals
• Nature of memberships
• Numbers

74
Who Belongs?

• Pluralist view
• - Multiplicity of groups
• - Varied interests
• - Optimistic view
• Elite view
• - Majority from middle- and upper-classes
• - Domination by business-related interests
• - No organization by lower classes

75
Interest Groups and Government

• Interest groups presuppose an existing government
  worth trying to influence.
• As government grows, so do interest groups.
• Some interest groups take on government
  functions.
• The bureaucracy has become one of the biggest and
  most powerful interest groups of all.

76
Effective Interest Groups

• Political culture
• Big money
• Political action committees (PACs)
• Single-issue groups
• Size and membership
• Access

77
Political Action Committees(PACs)

• Set up specifically to contribute money to
  election campaigns
• Originally an idea of labor unions
• Biggest spending from business
• Bulk of contributions to incumbents

78
Interest Group Strategies

• Approaching lawmakers
• Approaching the administration
• Approaching the judiciary
• Appeals to the public
• Demonstrations
• Violent protest

79
Questions to Consider

• How well do interest groups serve the needs of
  citizens?
• What happens to individuals who are not organized
  into groups?
• Who considers the interests of the whole country?
• Do interest groups only represent the views of a
  small but vocal minority?
• Do interest groups stalemate government action?

80
Finding a Balance

• Good of all
• Good of particular groups

81
Political Party

• Group seeking to elect office-holders under a
  given label
• Exist in almost all present-day societies,
  democratic or not
• Weak in U.S.

82
Functions of Parties

• Bridge between people and government
• Aggregation of interests
• Integration into the political system
• Political socialization
• Mobilization of voters
• Organization of government

83
Parties in Democracies

• Centralization
• Setting government policy
• Party participation in government
• Financing the party

84
Types of Parties

• Duvergers three types
• - mass
• - cadre
• - devotee
• Coalition
• Neo-institutional
• Catchall
• Relevant

85
Classifying Parties

• Left (liberal)
• Center-left
• Centrist
• Center-right
• Right (conservative)

86
Party in Communist States

• Politburo
• Opportunists
• Apparatchiks

87
Party Systems

• One-party
• Dominant-party
• Two-party
• Multiparty
• Two-plus party
• Fluid (or inchoate) party

88
Parties and Electoral Systems

• Single-member election districts
• Proportional representation

89
Types of Party Competition

• Moderate pluralism
• - Center-seeking (centripetal)
• Polarized pluralism
• - Center-fleeing (centrifugal)

90
Are Parties Fading?

• Not what they used to be
• Membership down
• Voters less loyal
• Should anything be done?

91
Electoral Systems

• Single-member districts
• - Advantages
• - Disadvantages
• Proportional representation
• - Advantages
• - Disadvantages

92
Voter Turnout

• Percent of those eligible who vote
• U.S. turnout low historically
• Lower in U.S. than in other democracies

93
U.S. Nonvoting The Debate

• Low electoral participation means that many
  Americans are turning away from the political
  system.
• Or, the decline may mean that Americans are
  basically satisfied with the system.

94
Who Votes?

• Income and education
• Race
• Age
• Gender
• Area of residence

95
How Do People Vote?

• Long-term variables
• Short-term variables

96
Party Identification (ID)

• Long-term voter attachment to a given party
• When strong, habitual voting for same party
  without question results
• Heavily influenced by family and instilled early
  in life
• Important element in electoral stability
• Fading in Europe

97
Who Votes How?

• Class voting
• Regional voting
• Religious blocs
• Age groups
• Gender gap
• Marriage gap
• Racial minorities
• Urban voting

98
Electoral Alignment

• Realignment
• Dealignment

99
What Wins Elections?

• Charisma
• Retrospective voting
• Candidate strategies
• Voter groups

100
Political Institutions

• Established and durable relationships of power
  and authority
• Working structures of government
• Evolve into importance
• Bigger than individual leaders
• Largely artificial creations

101
The Form of State

• Monarchy
• Republic

102
Territorial Structuring

• Unitary systems
• Federal systems
• Confederation

103
Unitary SystemsCenter-Periphery Tensions

• Devolution in Britain
• Decentralization in France
• Autonomy in Spain

104
FederalismSome Problems

• Ex-Soviet federalism
• Ex-Yugoslav federalism
• Canadian federalism

105
U.S. Balkanization

• More than 80,000 local governments
• Often in each others way
• Jurisdictional conflicts
• Burden shifting

106
U.S. Burden Shifting

• Growth of federal power
• New federalism
• Unfunded mandate

107
Federal Grants

• Categorical grants
• Block grants
• Revenue sharing

108
Executive Roles

• Head of state
• Head of government

109
Presidential Democracy

• Separation of power between executive and
  legislative branches
• President combines head of state with chief of
  government roles
• Executive not easily ousted by legislature

110
Parliamentary System

• Fusion of power between executive and legislative
  branches
• Head of state distinct from chief of government
• Chief political official (usually prime minister)
  easily ousted

111
Separation and Fusion of Power

• Executive-legislative deadlock
• Vote of confidence
• Immobilism

112
Coalition

• Multiparty alliance to form a government
• When no one party has majority of seats in
  parliament

113
Legislative Chambers

• Bicameral
• Unicameral

114
The Committee System

• Real power of modern legislatures
• Screen much proposed legislation
• Can make or break a proposal
• Includes
• - Standing (permanent) committees
• - Special ad hoc committees
• - Subcommittees

115
A Closer Look at Legislatures

• Lawmaking
• Constituency work
• Supervision and criticism of government
• Education
• Representation

116
Decline of Legislatures

• Structural disadvantages
• Lack of expertise
• Psychological disadvantages
• The absentee problem
• Lack of turnover
• Dilemma of parliaments

117
Executives

• Presidents
• Prime Ministers

118
European Parliaments

• Forming a government in Britain
• Constructive no confidence in Germany
• Cohabitation in France

119
The Clinton Impeachment

• Moralistic
• Divided
• Partisan
• Personality-driven
• Public
• Legalistic
• Expensive
• Institutionalized
• Distasteful

120
Roles of the Executive

• Head of state
• Chief of government
• Party chief
• Commander in chief
• Chief diplomat
• Dispenser of appointments
• Chief legislator

121
Executive Leadership

• Hands-on
• Hands-off
• Middle ground

122
Barbers Presidential Character

• Based on how much
• - presidents like political office
• - energy they put into it
• Types
• - Active-positive
• - Active-negative
• - Passive-positive
• - Passive-negative

123
Ill Presidents

• Woodrow Wilson
• Franklin D. Roosevelt
• John F. Kennedy
• Ronald Reagan

124
Cabinets

• Major executive divisions called department in
  U.S., ministry in most of the rest of the world.
• Who serves in a cabinet?
• Rise of noncabinet advisers

125
Bureaucracy

• Career civil service that staffs government
  executive agencies
• Rules, procedures, chain-of-command, hierarchy
• Brings some rationality, uniformity,
  predictability and supervision
• Often carries negative connotation

126
U.S. Federal Bureaucracy

• Cabinet departments
• Federal agencies
• Independent regulatory agencies

127
Bureaucracies in Other Nations

• Communist countries
• France
• Germany
• Great Britain
• Japan

128
Webers Characteristics of Bureaucracy

• Administrative offices are organized
  hierarchically.
• Each office has its own area of competence.
• Civil servants are appointed on the basis of
  technical qualifications.
• Civil servants receive fixed salaries according
  to rank.
• The job is a career and the sole employment of
  the civil servant.
• The official does not own his/her office.
• The official is subject to control and
  discipline.
• Promotion is based on superiors judgment.

129
Bureaucracyin Modern Government

• Administration
• Services
• Regulation
• Licensing
• Information gathering

130
Trouble with Bureaucracy

• Productivity
• Corruption

131
Roles of Bureaucracy

• Administration
• Policymaking
• Adjudication
• Discretionary implementation
• Rule making
• Advisory roles

132
What to Do with Bureaucracy?

• Ombudsmen
• Legislative checks
• Cutting
• Decentralization
• Politicizing

133
Types of Law

• Positive law
• Criminal law
• Civil law
• Constitutional law
• Administrative law
• International law
• Common law
• Code law
• Canon law

134
The Roots of Law

• Higher law
• Natural law

135
U.S. Court System

• National court structure
• - U.S. Supreme Court
• - Circuit courts
• - District courts
• State court system

136
Judges

• Federal
• State

137
Comparing Courts

• British court system
• European court system
• Law in Russia

138
Role of the Courts

• Judicial review
• - Marbury v. Madison
• Political role

139
Influences on Judges

• Outlook and background
• Geography
• Occupational background
• Party affiliation
• Conception of judicial role
• Colleagues opinions
• Public opinion

140
Warren Court

• Civil rights
• Criminal justice
• Legislative reapportionment

141
Post-Warren Courts

• Burger Court (1969 1986)
• Rehnquist Court (1986-present)

142
Government and the Economy

• Classic Adam Smith
• Keynesian economics
• Congress
• Federal Reserve Board

143
Leading Economic Problems

• Inflation
• Tax hike
• Balance of payments
• Gold standard
• Wage-price freeze
• Oil shocks
• Stagflation
• Interest rates
• Tax cut
• Budget deficits
• Trade deficits
• Budget balancing

144
U.S. Boom

• Balanced federal budgets
• Low inflation and interest rates
• Modest taxes
• Slowly growing wages
• Modest regulation
• Plentiful imports
• Consumer-driven prosperity
• Low oil prices

145
U.S. Federal Budget

• Discretionary spending
• Mandatory spending

146
Budget Balancing

• Deficits
• Debt

147
Entitlement

• U.S. federal expenditure mandated by law
• Social Security, Medicare are examples
• Often called uncontrollable spending
• Extremely difficult to cut

148
Defining Poverty

• Ideological differences
• - Liberal view
• - Conservative view
• Poverty line
• - U.S. Department of Labor
• - Three times a minimal food budget

149
Welfare

• Food Stamps
• Welfare reform
• - AFDC ends
• - Workfare developed
• Medicaid

150
How Big Should Government Be?

• American answer
• - Keep government small
• - Suspect and criticize expansion of government
  power
• Welfare state already small
• Bulk of federal spending in entitlements

151
System Breakdown

• Political malfunctioning/instability
• Erosion of legitimacy
• Regimes loss of effectiveness

152
Terrorism

• September 11
• Grows mostly in countries struggling to modernize
• Group activity
• Some state-sponsored
• Works rarely and seldom alone

153
Types of Violence

• Primordial
• Separatist
• Revolutionary
• Coups
• Issues

154
Change

• A cause of violence
• Rising expectations
• Rising frustrations
• Relative deprivation

155
Revolutions

• Quick, dramatic system change
• Throw out old system and its elites
• Require organization
• Need intellectuals

156
Stages of Revolution

• Old regime decays
• Committees, networks, cells or conspiracies form
• Moderates take over at first
• Extremists take over
• Thermidor ends reign of terror

157
After the Revolution

• One tyranny replaced with another
• Generally end badly
• Revolutionary promise is golden revolutionary
  results are mud

158
Waning of Revolution

• Countries where revolution is still being fought
  are still idealistic and convinced they will
  bring a better social system.
• Countries where revolution has triumphed are
  characterized by disillusionment and bitterness.

159
Heading Off Revolutions

• Answer simple but difficult to carry out
• End injustices that revolutions feed on
• Reforms hard to apply due to strong resistance
• Institute reforms before revolutionary feeling is
  implanted
• Head off problem before it becomes dangerous.

160
International Relations

• Wilder and more complex than domestic politics
• Lack of sovereignty
• Dependent on power, not force
• Different countries, different national interests

161
Types of National Interest

• Vital versus secondary
• Temporary versus permanent
• Specific versus general
• Complementary versus conflicting

162
Why War?

• Micro theories
• Macro theories
• - Balance of power
• - Hierarchy of power
• Misperception

163
Keeping Peace

• World government
• Collective security
• Functionalism
• Third-party assistance
• Diplomacy
• Peacekeeping

164
The Cold War

• Truman Doctrine
• Marshall Plan
• Containment

165
Beyond Sovereignty

• The United Nations (UN)
  
  
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
• Organization on Security and Cooperation in
  Europe (OSCE)

166
International System

• The pattern in which countries interact
• Observers do not agree on what kind of system is
  emerging
• Devising rational, coherent U.S. foreign policy
  difficult
• Most Americans do not care

167
Historical Systems

• 19th century balance of power system
• Interwar system
• Bipolar Cold War system

168
What System is Emerging?

• Unipolar
• Hub-and-spokes
• Multipolar
• Stratified
• Zones-of-chaos
• Repolarized
• Globalized
• Resource-wars
• Clash-of-civilizations
• Proliferation

169
Economics

• Common thread among most models
• Takes place of military might and alliances
• Biggest single factor structuring globe

170
U.S. Foreign Policy Cycles

• Interventionism
• Isolationism

171
Interventions Without Risk?

• Gulf War, 1991
• Somalia, 1992-1993
• Haiti, 1994
• Bosnia, 1995
• Kosovo, 1999
• Colombia, ongoing

172
Klingbergs Alternation Theory

• Introversion Averaging 21 years
• Extroversion Averaging 27 years

173
Current American Isolationism

• May connote rigidity and ignorance
• May be unilateralism
• - Doing things our way against wishes of allies
• May be noninterventionism
• - Reluctance to use U.S. forces overseas
• Are there duties beyond borders?

174
Politics

• Now out of favor
• Still matters
• Aristotles master science

175
Nation or State?

• A nation is a population with a certain sense of
  itself, a cohesiveness, a commonality of
  attitudes and ideals, and often a common
  language.
• A state is a government structure, usually
  sovereign and powerful enough to enforce its
  writ.

176
The Elements of Nationhood

• Territory
• Population
• Independence
• Government

177
The Crises of Nation Building

• Identity
• Legitimacy
• Penetration
• Participation
• Distribution

178
Classifying Governments

• Laissez-faire
• Welfare state
• Statism
• Socialism

179
AristotlesSix Types of Government

• Legitimate forms Rule in interest of all
• - Monarchy
• - Aristocracy
• - Polity
• Corrupt forms Rule in interest of selves
• - Tyranny
• - Oligarchy
• - Democracy

180
State Power

• The state as agent of modernization
• Subsystem autonomy or pluralism
• Centralization of political power
• - Unitary systems
• - Federalism

181
Dahls Influence Terms

• Rational persuasion
• Manipulative persuasion
• Inducement
• Power
• Coercion
• Physical Force

182
Making Public Policy

• Symbolic policy
• Tangible policy

183
An Interdisciplinary Study

• History
• Human Geography
• Economics
• Sociology
• Anthropology
• Psychology

184
Power

• Distinguishing feature of political science
• Ability of one person to get another to do
  something

185
Explanations of Political Power

• Biological
• Psychological
• Cultural
• Rational
• Irrational
• Power as a composite

186
Key Power Concepts

• Legitimacy
• Sovereignty
• Authority

187
An Empirical Science

• Hypothesis
• Quantified data
• Qualitative data

188
Scholarly Work

• Reasoned
• Balanced
• Supported by evidence

189
Politicians

• Love power
• Seek popularity
• Practical thinking
• Hold firm views
• Offer single causes
• See short-term payoff
• Plan for next election
• Respond to groups
• Seek name recognition

190
Political Scientists

• Skeptical of power
• Seek accuracy
• Abstract thinking
• Reach tentative conclusions
• Offer many causes
• See long-term consequences
• Plan for next publication
• Seek good of whole
• Seek professional prestige

191
Politics and Society

• Percolating up
• Dripping down

192
Classic Theories

• Plato
• Aristotle
• Machiavelli
• The contractualists
• Hegel
• Marxism
• Institutionalism

193
Not Just Europeans

• Confucius
• Kautilya
• Ibn Khaldun

194
The Contractualists

• Hobbes
• Locke
• Rousseau

195
Marxist Theories

• Economics
• Social Class
• History

196
Contemporary Theories

• Behavioralism
• -Postbehavioralism
• Systems theory
• Modernization theory
• Rational-choice theory
• - Game theory
• New institutionalism

197
Eastons Systems Model

• Key parts
• - Inputs
• - Black box conversion process
• - Outputs
• - Feedback link
• May be too static
• Unable to handle upheaval
• Should it be modified?

198
Modified Systems Model

• Conversion process first
• Black box contains withinputs
• Better reflects complexity of reality

199
Model

• Simplified picture of reality
• Used to order data, theorize and predict
• Risk of oversimplifying