Advanced Applications of CBM in Reading: Instructional Decision-Making Strategies

1
Advanced Applications of CBMin Reading
Instructional Decision-Making Strategies

• Pamela M. Stecker, Ph.D.
• Erica S. Lembke, Ph.D.
• July 8, 2005

2
Overview of Session

• 1. Importance of Using Progress Monitoring
• 2. General Approaches for Conducting Progress
  Monitoring
• Using general outcome measures of achievement
  (robust indicators)
• Using skills-based measures of achievement
  (systematic sampling of curricular skills)
• 3. Print-Based Progress Monitoring Measures in
  Reading
• Letter-Naming Fluency
• Letter-Sound Fluency
• Nonsense Word Fluency
• Word Identification Fluency
• Oral Reading Fluency
• Maze Fluency

3
Overview of Session (contd)

• 4. General Procedures for Data-Based Decision
  Making
• Goal setting and rate of progress
• Decision-making framework
• 5. Web-Based Applications in Reading
• AIMSweb
• Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
  (DIBELS)
• Edcheckup
• Yearly Progress Pro
• 6. Generally Effective Reading Instruction
• Instructional procedures
• Case studies

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Part 1Importance of Using Progress Monitoring
5
What Is Progress Monitoring?

• Progress monitoring involves ongoing data
  collection on skills that are important to
  student success and can be used to
• estimate student rates of improvement
• identify students who are not demonstrating
  adequate progress
• aid teachers in instructional planning

6
Why Is Progress Monitoring Important?

• Research has demonstrated that when teachers use
  progress monitoring for instructional
  decision-making purposes
• students achieve more
• teacher decision-making improves
• students tend to be more aware of their
  performance
• (e.g., see Fuchs, Deno, Mirkin, 1984 L. S.
  Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Ferguson, 1992 Stecker,
  Fuchs, Fuchs, in press)

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Benefits of Conducting Progress Monitoring

• Student performance data on important,
  grade-level skills/content can be gathered
  quickly and easily
• Student progress can be analyzed in order to
  modify instructional programs when needed and/or
  adjust student goals upward
• Individual student data can be compared to data
  of other students in the classroom, in the
  childs school, or in the school district

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Progress Monitoring Levels of Implementation

• Schoolwide screening
• To identify at-risk students who may need
  additional services
• Grade-level, classroom-level, or individual
  student level
• To help general educators plan more effective
  instruction
• To help special educators design more effective
  instructional programs for students who do not
  respond to general education

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Curriculum-Based Measurement A Specific Form of
Progress Monitoring

• CBM is a scientifically validated form of student
  progress monitoring that incorporates standard
  methods for test development, administration,
  scoring, and data utilization
• CBM enjoys nearly 30 years of research to support
  its effectiveness
• Several computerized or Web-based versions of
  progress monitoring are based on principles of CBM

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Key Features of CBM

• Tests sample year-long curriculum
• Tests are relatively brief and easy to administer
• Tests are given frequently (e.g., from twice
  weekly to every month) to judge student progress
• Each alternate form samples the same types of
  skills at the same level of difficulty

• Student performance is used to set long-term
  goals
• Scores are graphed, and teachers use a
  decision-making framework to judge adequacy of
  student progress
• Data are used to compare/contrast effectiveness
  of different instructional methods
• CBM has documented reliability and validity

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Sample CBM graph
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Why Should Your School/District/State Implement
Progress Monitoring?

• What efforts have you already made toward
  implementation of progress monitoring?
• What are your goals for implementation for next
  year?
• Goals for 3 years from now?

ACTION PLAN
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Part 2General Approaches for Conducting
Progress Monitoring
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Two Main Approaches for Sampling Student
Performance

• Using General Outcome Measures of Achievement
• Robust indicators of overall reading proficiency
• Oral reading fluency
• Maze
• Using Skills-Based Measures of Achievement
• Mixed set of items representing systematic
  sampling of skills from the annual curriculum
  (e.g., mixed set of problems in mathematics)
• (see Fuchs, 2004 for a description of general
  outcome vs. skills-based measures)

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General Outcome Measures

• Correlate well with other measures of component
  skills that constitute reading
• Correlate better than other possible tasks that
  could be used to represent reading

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General Outcome Measures in Reading

• Oral Reading Fluency and Maze
• Overall indicators of reading competence
• Students who score well on these skills tend to
  be students who also do well with decoding, sight
  words, and comprehension
• Scores and slopes correlate well with other
  global measures of reading competence, such as
  high-stakes test performance, performance on
  standardized tests, and teacher-made tests

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Skills-Based Measures

• Systematic sampling of the annual curriculum to
  create probes that proportionally represent the
  instructional curriculum
• Allows the possibility of providing analysis of
  level of mastery of component skills

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Skills-Based Content

• Mixed set of items representing important skills
  from the annual curriculum or state standards in
  reading/language arts, including, for example
• selecting misspelled words
• identifying main ideas for paragraph or passage
• locating verbs within sentences
• choosing correct punctuation for writing a date

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What considerations do you need to address as you
choose a progress monitoring system?

• What type of information do you hope to collect
  about student progress in reading?
• Approach you will use?
• Scope of implementation at your school (school,
  class, or grade level)?
• Resources?
• Time
• Money
• Personnel
• Technology
• How will teachers betrained and providedwith
  ongoing support?

ACTION PLAN
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Part 3 Print-Based Progress Monitoring Measures
in Reading
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Common Print-Based Progress Monitoring Reading
Measures

• Letter-Naming Fluency
• Letter-Sound Fluency
• Nonsense Word Fluency
• Word Identification Fluency
• Oral Reading Fluency
• Maze Fluency
• Type of measure and time necessary for
  administration varies by system!

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Single-Skill vs. CBM Multidimensional Measures

• Single-skill measures
• Focus on one type of skill
• Static scores correlate well with some criterion
  measures
• Few studies that document use of single-skill
  measures for modeling global learning over time
  consequently, growth over time may not correspond
  well with overall learning of the broader domain
• Instructional utility may be overly narrow across
  the long term

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Single-Skill vs. CBM Multidimensional Measures

• Multidimensional Measures (CBM)
• Oral reading fluency and maze fluency--student
  must integrate many reading skills in order to
  perform well on task
• Scores and slopes correlate well with multiple
  global measures of reading competence
• Instructional utility is broad based

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Letter-Naming Fluency

• Single-skill measure for kindergarten students
• Used in AIMSweb, DIBELS
• Data graphed Number of letters named correctly
  in 1 minute

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Letter-Sound Fluency

• Single-skill measure used for kindergarten
  students
• Used in AIMSweb, Edcheckup
• Data graphed Number of letter sounds produced
  correctly in 1 minute

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Nonsense Word Fluency

• Single-skill measure used for kindergarten and
  first-grade students (vc or cvc blending)
• Used in AIMSweb, DIBELS
• Data graphed Number of sounds produced correctly
  in 1 minute (Student may say individual sounds or
  say the entire word however, credit is awarded
  for each sound produced)

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Word Identification Fluency

• Embeds several skills, such as decoding,
  sight-word recognition, vocabulary knowledge
• Used for first-grade students
• Used in Edcheckup
• Data graphed Number of words said in 1 minute

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Oral Reading Fluency

• Multidimensional CBM measure used for students
  who are beginning to read connected text through
  high school students
• Used in AIMSweb, DIBELS, Edcheckup
• Data graphed Number of words read correctly in 1
  minute

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Maze Fluency

• Multidimensional CBM measure often used for
  students in fourth grade through high school
• Used in AIMSweb, Edcheckup, Yearly Progress Pro
  also used in Monitoring Basic Skills Progress
  computer program (L.S. Fuchs, Hamlett, Fuchs,
  1997)
• Data graphed Number of correct maze choices in
  2.5 minutes

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Print-Based Measures in Reading

• With which measures are you most familiar?
• Which measures would you like to examine?
• Relative benefits of individual measures?
• Resource considerations
• Time
• Money
• Technology
• Training

ACTION PLAN
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Part 4 General Procedures for Data-Based
Decision Making
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General Procedures

• Select goal-level material
• Collect baseline data and set realistic or
  ambitious goals
• Administer timed, alternate measures weekly
• Apply decision-making rules to graphed data every
  3-4 weeks
• Implement instructional interventions when
  warranted
• Use database to analyze errors and to develop
  instructional procedures

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Selection of Measure

• General CBM Implementation Schedule

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Goal Setting Methods

• Universal benchmarks
• Use of growth rates that reflect typical
  increases in performance by grade level
• Intra-individual framework that accounts for
  baseline rate of improvement and multiplies rate
  by 1.5
• Goal-setting method varies by system used!

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CBM Reading Benchmarks

• K 40 letter sounds per min.
• 1 50 words correct per min. on word list
• 2 75 words correct from text per min.
• 3 100 words correct from text per min.
• 4 20 replacements in text per 2.5 min.
• 5 25 replacements in text per 2.5 min.
• 6 30 replacements in text per 2.5 min.

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Realistic and Ambitious Growth Rates for Oral
Reading Fluency

• Grade Realistic Ambitious
• 1 2.0 3.0
• 2 1.5 2.0
• 3 1.0 1.5
• 4 0.85 1.1
• 5 0.5 0.8
• 6 0.3 0.65
• Maze Fluency 0.4 0.85
• (see L. S. Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Walz,
  Germann, 1993)

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Writing GoalsLegally Correct and Educationally
Meaningful IEP Goals

• Current Level of Performance
• Given passages sampled randomly from Grade 3
  reading curriculum, Jasmine currently reads 50
  words correct per minute (i.e., median baseline
  information).
• End-of-Year Goal
• If teacher calculates a 1.5-word increase across
  34 weeks left in school year and adds it to the
  current baseline, Jasmines goal will be set at
  101 words read correctly per minute (1.5 x 34)
  50 101
• In 34 weeks, when given a grade 3 passage,
  Jasmine will read aloud 101 words in one minute.

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Goal Line Versus Students Current Rate of
Progress

• Examine both level and rate of student progress
  to determine whether students are progressing
  adequately to reach end-of-year goals
• Compare students current rate of progress with
  projected rate of progress (i.e., goal line)
• To judge whether the instructional program needs
  to be modified to better meet student needs
• or
• To determine whether the goal should be raised

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General Decision-Making Framework

• Trend-Line Rule
• If 4 weeks of instruction have occurred AND at
  least 8 data points have been collected, figure
  trend of current performance and compare to goal
  line.
• If trend of student progress is steeper than goal
  line, raise goal.
• If trend of student progress is less steep than
  goal line, make a teaching change.

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What Is the Data-Based Decision Rule?
The trend-line rule may be applied Data-based
decision is to make an instructional change.
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General Decision-Making Framework

• 4-Point Rule
• (supersedes the trend-line rule)
• If 3 weeks of instruction have occurred AND at
  least 6 points have been collected, examine the 4
  most recent data points.
• If all 4 are above goal line, increase goal.
• If all 4 are below goal line, make a teaching
  change.
• If the 4 data points are both above and below the
  goal line, keep collecting data until trend-line
  rule or 4-point rule can be applied.

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What Is the Data-Based Decision Rule?
The 4-point rule may be applied Data-based
decision is to raise the goal.
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What Is the Data-Based Decision Rule?
The 4-point rule may be applied Data-based
decision is to make an instructional change.
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Intervention Implementation

• Most important aspect of CBM
• USE THE DATA!!!
• The following instructional elements may be
  altered to enhance student performance
• Instructional strategies
• Size of instructional group
• Time allocated for instruction
• Materials used
• Reinforcement

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Considerations for Data-Based Decision Making

• How will you determine what goals to use?
  Universal goals? Slope data? Goals from a
  particular system?
• How often will you collect data and with whom?
  Schoolwide? With individual students?
• How will you prompt yourself to apply
  decision-making rules and how often? Or, how will
  you prompt others?
• How will instructional interventions be
  determined, and how will their implementation be
  monitored?

ACTION PLAN
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Part 5Web-Based Tools in Reading
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AIMSweb

• http//www.edformation.com

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AIMSweb CBM Measures

• Reading-CBM (Oral Reading Fluency)English and
  Spanish
• Maze-CBM (Reading Comprehension)
• Early Literacy Measures
• MIDE (Spanish Early Literacy)
• Early Numeracy-CBM
• Mathematics-CBM
• Spelling-CBM
• Written Expression-CBM

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DIBELS Compatible

• AIMSweb fully supports charting and reporting of
  all DIBELS brand assessments
• Customers may use DIBELS assessments, AIMSweb
  assessments, or any combination of both

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3-Tier Progress Monitoringand Response to
Intervention system
Powered by Edformation
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Tier 1 BenchmarkFeatures

• Organizes Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) and
  DIBELS Data for Benchmark Assessment Fall,
  Winter, and Spring
• Prepares Reports for Teachers, Principals, and
  Administrators on Individual Students, Classes,
  Grades, Schools, and School Districts
• Identifies At Risk Students Early
• Objectively Determines Rates of Progress for
  Individual Students, Schools, and NCLB Risk
  Groups
• Allows Evaluation at Multiple Levels of
  Comparison Groups
• Prints Professional Reports for Parent
  Conferences and Other Meetings

Powered by Edformation
56
Tier 1 BenchmarkIndividual Student Report -
Spring

• Documents What Worked for At Risk Students

Powered by Edformation
57
Tier 1 BenchmarkClass Report Rank by Score and
Percentile

• Rank Orders Students by Performance
• Color-Codes Individual Educational Needs
• Provides Instructional Decisions to Think About

Powered by Edformation
58
Tier 1 BenchmarkGrade Report All Skills Matrix

• Identifies At-Risk Students in the School by
  Name, Teacher, Assessment, and Benchmark Period

Powered by Edformation
59
Tier 1 BenchmarkBuilding Report Above and
Below Target

• Evaluates Improvement of Students Relative to
  Specified Achievement Targets

Powered by Edformation
60
Tier 1 BenchmarkDistrict Report Compare Schools

• Allows Comparison of Scores by School

Powered by Edformation
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Strategic MonitorFeatures

• Monthly assessments to allow more frequent
  evaluation
• Verifies achievement levels
• Identification of all students requiring
  intensive progress monitoring is ensured

Powered by Edformation
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Tier 2 Strategic MonitorIndividual Student Report
Powered by Edformation
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Progress MonitorFeatures

• Frequently assess students in need of intensive
  instructional services
• Document the effects of intervention
• Print professional reports for periodic and
  annual reviews
• Translate annual IEP goals into expected rates of
  progress (Aim lines) automatically
• Monitor progress (Trend lines) towards goals

Powered by Edformation
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Tier 3 Progress MonitorCase Manager Interface
Powered by Edformation
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Tier 3 Progress MonitorStudent Report 3

• IEP Revisions Can Be Evaluated

Powered by Edformation
66
Tier 3 Progress MonitorStudent Report 4

• And Revised as Necessary!!

Powered by Edformation
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Response to Intervention (RTI)Standard Process
Protocol

• Assess skills directly, frequently, and
  continuously using CBM assessments
• Progress Monitor with AIMSweb to chart expected
  rates of progress and quickly compare to actual
  rates of progress
• Plan, Intervene, and Document. The RTI Interface
  pulls data together to provide clear evidence of
  a response to intervention or lack of response

Powered by Edformation
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Response to Intervention (RTI)Case Manager
Interface
Powered by Edformation
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Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
(DIBELS)

• http//dibels.uoregon.edu

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DIBELS Measures and Administration Schedule for
Benchmarking
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Materials Provided

• Materials can be printed for school-wide
  benchmarking (3 times per year) or for individual
  progress monitoring (weekly)
• For both benchmarking and progress monitoring,
  measures and directions are provided in
  easy-to-manage, folded booklets

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Information Provided

• Provides comprehensive data management and
  reports for
• District-level
• School-level
• Grade-level
• Class-level
• Individual student level

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Grade-Level Reports

• Report Components
• Benchmark Goalslong-term performance goals.
  Represent minimal levels of satisfactory progress
  for the lowest achieving students.
• Established, Emerging, or Deficit--if the
  benchmark goal is to be completed by the time the
  measure is administered
• Low Risk, Some Risk, or At-Risk--if the benchmark
  goal is to be completed at some point in the
  future

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Class Reports

• Scoresraw scores
• Percentilespercent of students that scored the
  same as or lower than the student
• Statusrefers to grade-level report
• Instructional recommendations
• Benchmark (Tier I)goal has been met or student
  is on track to meet subsequent goals no
  additional intervention is recommended at this
  time
• Strategic (Tier II)no clear prediction regarding
  subsequent goals and additional intervention is
  recommended
• Intensive (Tier III)odds are against student
  achieving subsequent goals without substantial
  intervention
• Reports can be printed for one testing period
  (e.g., Winter) or across the school year (Fall,
  Winter, Spring)

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Individual Student Reports

• Provides data on individual students
• Across a school year
• Across the students elementary career
• Data are provided for each reading skill and can
  be compared to benchmark goals

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Edcheckup

• http//www.edcheckup.com

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Edcheckup Reading and Writing Measures That Can
Be Downloaded and Printed
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Edcheckup Letter Sounds
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Edcheckup Isolated Words
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Edcheckup Oral Reading
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Edcheckup Maze Reading
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Data Entry for Oral Reading Edcheckup Program
Automatically Calculates Median
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Link to Electronic Scoring Feature
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Electronic Scoring Feature
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Roster Shows Class Lists and Measures Used
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Class Reports Options Page
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• Class Report with Recommendations Regarding
  Interventions
• At or above benchmark (blue)
• On track with modest rate (green)
• Intervention recommended (yellow)
• Intervention necessary (red)

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Edcheckup Individual Student Report Screening
and Progress Monitoring Data
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McGraw-HillDigital Learning

• http//www.mhdigitallearning.com

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McGraw-HillDigital Learning

• Language Arts 15-minute weekly standards-based
  measure of specific skills
• Text Comprehension (includes narrative,
  informational, and functional passages)
• Vocabulary
• Spelling
• Word Analysis
• Language Mechanics
• Language Usage and Expression
• Reading 2 1/2-minute weekly maze measure

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Student Takes Assessment
How Yearly Progress Pro? Works
McGraw-Hill Digital Learning
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Grade 3rd Cluster Word Analysis Skill
Letter-sound correspondence for
vowels McGraw-Hill Digital Learning
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Grade 3rd Cluster Reading Comprehension Skill
Literal Details McGraw-Hill Digital Learning
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Grade 3rd Cluster Reading
Comprehension Skill Main Idea McGraw-Hill Digit
al Learning
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Grade 3rd Cluster Reading Vocabulary Skill
Synonyms McGraw-Hill Digital Learning
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Grade 3rd Cluster Language Mechanics Skill
Punctuation McGraw-Hill Digital Learning
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Report by Skill Cluster

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Class Report by Skill Detail
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Reading Maze--2 1/2 Minutes
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Whole Class Report
110
Student Watch Report
111
Graph of Student Meeting Year-End Target
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Graph of Student Almost Meeting Year-End Target
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Graph of Student Not Progressing Well
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Dual Discrepancy Report
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Student Detail for Dual Discrepancy

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Intervention Recommendations
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Price Skills Covered
AIMSweb Basic (data management for DIBELS)--1 per student per year Pro (data management and materials for skills)--2-4 per student per year Early literacy, oral reading, maze, writing, early numeracy, spelling, mathematics
DIBELS Materials onlyFree Materials and data management, 1 per student per year Early literacy, oral reading, retell, word use fluency
Edcheckup Materials and data management, 80-100 per classroom, per year Reading materials free for a limited time Beginning reading, oral reading, maze, writing mathematics being developed
Yearly Progress Pro Annual student subscriptions are 7.99 for one subject or 12.98 per student for two subjects (skills are aligned to state or national standards as requested), provides skills analyses and report access for teachers and administrators includes student tutorials for each skill add 1st-year technology and implementation fee per building Reading and Language Arts--includes reading maze and language assessment of specific reading and language skills, such as main idea, critical analysis, spelling, vocabulary, grammar Mathematics--grade-level specific computation and problem solving skills aligned to state and national standards
Information taken from Web sites or publishers
on 5/30/05. Check with individual publishers for
most current information.
118
Considerations When Selecting a Web-Based
Systemfor Progress Monitoring

• Measures needed?
• Types of information provided?
• Cost?
• Other academic areas covered?

ACTION PLAN
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Part 6Generally Effective Reading Instruction
120
General Considerations When Determining
Interventions

• Using research-validated instructional
  procedures Is there evidence for their
  effectiveness?
• Oral reading fluency or maze fluency
• Very low scores student probably would benefit
  from instruction in decoding and word
  identification
• Somewhat low scores student probably would
  benefit from fluency interventions
• Average scores student probably would benefit
  from vocabulary instruction and text
  comprehension strategies

121
NRP Findings Focus on Critical Areas of Literacy
Instruction

• Phonemic Awarenessability to hear and manipulate
  individual sounds in oral language
• Phonicsunderstanding and connecting letters of
  written language with sounds of oral language
• Fluencyreading text accurately and quickly
• Vocabularyoral or reading language needed for
  effective communication
• Text Comprehensionpurposeful and active
  strategies for understanding written language
• (National Reading Panel, 2000)

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PHONEMIC AWARENESS

• Phonological awareness The understanding that
  ORAL language can be broken down into smaller
  components and the ability to manipulate those
  components--sentences into words, words into
  syllables, words into onsets and rimes, and words
  into individual phonemes/s/ /u/ /n/ or /s/
  /u/ /n/ /sh/ /i/ /n/
• Phonemic awareness the ability to hear,
  identify, and manipulate individual sounds in
  spoken words appears critical for reading and
  spelling development
• Put Reading Firstvarious dimensions of phonemic
  awareness phoneme isolation, identity,
  categorization, blending, segmentation, deletion,
  addition, substitution

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Critical Dimensions ofPhonemic Awareness

• Blending Ill say the sounds of a word. You
  guess what the word is. What word is this?
  /fffuuunnn/
• Segmenting Im going to say a word, and then
  Ill say each sound in the word. Listen
  carefully. man - /m/ /a/ /n/
  Now Ill say a different
  word and you tell me each sound you hear.

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n
u
s
125
Phoneme Deletion or Substitution

• Deletion Im going to ask you to say a word and
  then to say it again without one or more of its
  sounds. Say sat. Now say it again, but dont
  say /s/. (at) Say plate but dont say
  /p/. (late) Say plane but dont say
  /n/. (play)
• Substitution Say plane but change /pl/ to /tr/
  (train)
• General progression of difficulty beginning
  sounds, ending sounds, middle sounds)

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PHONICS

• Systematic and Explicit Phonics instruction
  significantly improves young childrens decoding,
  spelling, and reading comprehension and older
  students word reading and oral text reading
  skills.
• Systematic logical sequence and careful
  selection of letter-sounds for instruction
• Explicit precise directions for teachers or
  careful wording to emphasize accurate models for
  students and to make letter-sound relationships
  conspicuous

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Why Is Phonics Instruction So Challenging for
Many Teachers?

• Many teacher preparation programs do not provide
  training in phonics instruction.
• The English alphabet contains 26 letters but we
  use roughly 44 phonemes. These sounds are
  represented by as many as 250 different spellings
  (e.g., /f/ as in ph, f, gh, ff).
• Many core beginning reading programs have not
  emphasized systematic and explicit phonics
  instruction.

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Phonics Instruction

• Use a functional sequence of letter-sounds, one
  that leads to rapid success in reading words
• Provide opportunities for practicing decoding
  skills both in word lists and in connected text

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Systematic and Explicit Phonics Instruction

• Introduce most common sound for a new letter (/k/
  for c)
• Separate instruction of potentially confusing
  letters due to visual or auditory similarity
  (h/n, e/i, b/d)
• May introduce lower case letters first (more
  functional)

• Start with high-utility letters (s, t, m, and
  vowels, not z, x)
• Select words that start with continuous sounds
  rather than stop sounds when beginning to sound
  out wordsor for blending and segmenting practice
  (use mat before bat)

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FLUENCY

• Repeated and monitored oral reading significantly
  improves reading fluency and overall reading
  achievement.
• Caution Silent, independent reading with little
  guidance or feedback may not be enough to improve
  fluency and overall reading achievement.

131
Why Fluency Is Important

• More fluent readers focus their attention on
  making connections among the ideas in a text and
  between these ideas and their background
  knowledge. Therefore, they are able to focus on
  comprehension.

• Less fluent readers focus their attention
  primarily on decoding and accessing the meaning
  of individual words. Therefore, they appear to
  have little attention left for comprehending
  connected text.

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Oral Reading Fluency Norms, 2005
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
59 89 107 125 138 150 150 150
Grade
WPM
Spring norms Over 100,000 students Taken from
Oral Reading Fluency, 90 Years of Measurement.
Behavioral Research and Teaching, Eugene, OR,
2005. http//brt.uoregon.edu/techreports/TR_33_NCO
RF_DescStats.pdf
133
Fluency Interventions

• Model fluent reading. Have students reread text
  themselves. Read aloud daily.
• Students should read aloud repeatedly with
  guidance.
• Use text at independent level (approx. 95
  accuracy).
• Use adults, peers, or tape recorders for modeling
  and practicing one to one (although can do
  classwide partner reading). Choral reading may
  engage groups of students.
• Activities from Put Reading First
• Student-adult reading
• Choral reading
• Tape-assisted reading
• Partner reading
• Readers theater

134
Repeated Readings as an Instructional Strategy

• Text used for repeated readings may be of varying
  lengthoften 100-word passages are used for young
  elementary children. Student reads text three or
  four times, trying to decrease the duration for
  each reading. Or, teacher sets a time limit, such
  as 1 or 2 min., for student to read as much as
  possible. Goal is to increase the amount read in
  each subsequent reading.
• Text should include only words the student can
  read rapidly and accurately, either through
  efficient decoding or good sight-word vocabulary.
• Teacher or student may chart progress and
  reinforce increases in rate.

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VOCABULARY

• Many words are learned indirectly through
  everyday experiences with oral and written
  language (e.g., conversations, listening to
  others read, reading independently).
• However, some vocabulary must be taught directly
  through specific word instruction or through
  word-learning strategies.

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Direct Vocabulary Learning Specific Word
Instruction

• Direct vocabulary instruction aids in
  comprehension. However, a text may have too many
  unknown words for direct instructionbe selective
  with vocabulary. Students do not have to know all
  words in order to understand text.
• Words selected should be important, useful, and
  difficult.
• Teach specific words prior to reading text (e.g.,
  use a model, synonym, or definition).
• Repeat exposure to vocabulary often and in many
  different contexts.
• Teach word-learning strategies (e.g., use of
  dictionaries and other reference tools,
  contextual clues, word parts).
• An important aspect of teaching vocabulary is
  selecting a set of appropriate examples.

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Examples for Specific Word Instruction

• Model the concept above. Use hand or object and
  place above or not above other objects
  (demonstrate position).
• Teach meaning for gigantic by using the known
  synonym large. Connect to prior knowledge,
  check with examples and nonexamples, and use in
  sentences.
• Teach meaning by providing definition exita
  door that leads out of the building. Is this
  (point to front door) an exit or not? How do you
  know?
• (see Carnine, Silbert, Kameenui, Tarver, 2002)

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COMPREHENSION

• is the reason for reading!
• Comprehension is both purposeful and active. Good
  readers have a purpose for reading, and they
  think actively about what they are reading as
  they are doing it (metacognitionmonitoring
  understanding during reading and applying fix
  up strategies, such as adjusting reading speed
  and rereading also checking understanding
  afterward).

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Effective Comprehension Strategies

• Comprehension monitoringinvolves students using
  a set of steps to recognize when they have
  difficulties understanding
• Graphic and semantic organizers (webs, charts,
  frames)to illustrate relationships among ideas
  and events
• Summarizinginvolves synthesis of important
  ideas helps to identify main ideas, eliminate
  unnecessary information, and remember content
• Answering questions and generating own
  questionshelp students to establish purpose,
  focus attention, think and monitor actively,
  review content, and relate content to prior
  knowledge
• Story structureknowledge of story parts (e.g.,
  characters, setting, problem, sequence of events,
  problem resolution) facilitates comprehension
• Guidelines for How to Teach Comprehension
• Cooperative learningstudents work together to
  apply comprehension strategies. Effective with
  clearly defined tasks and content-area reading.
• Multiple-strategy instructionstudents use
  different strategies flexibly as needed to assist
  their comprehension.

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Comprehension Strategies Should Be Taught Directly

• As with other big ideas in reading instruction,
  comprehension strategies must be taught
  explicitly
• Provide explanations--why strategy helps and when
  it should be applied
• Model or demonstrate strategy--think aloud
• Provide guided practice using strategy
• Scaffold assistance during practice opportunities
  until students become independent in applying
  strategy

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Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) A
Multiple Strategy Intervention

• Classwide peer tutoring program to supplement
  classroom literacy instruction for practicing
  important reading skills and strategies, such as
  decoding, sight-word recognition, oral reading
  fluency, summarization, and prediction
• Validated instructional practices that strengthen
  general educations capacity to meet academic
  needs of increasingly diverse population in
  classrooms
• (D. Fuchs, Fuchs, Burish, 2000)

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PALS Research

• Based on Juniper Gardens ClassWide Peer Tutoring
  model
• Has over 10 years of experimental research
• Used in Title 1 and Non-Title 1 Schools
• Implemented in urban and suburban schools
• Includes high, average, and low achievers as well
  as students with disabilities

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Critical Features of PALS

• Supplemental reading practice several times per
  week (30-45 min. each session, depending on grade
  level and activities)
• Structured activities
• Reciprocal roles (Coaches and Readers)
• Individualized support--corrective feedback
• More time on task with active engagement
• Inclusion of all students with built-in
  opportunities for success
• Facilitation of positive peer interactions
• Opportunities to monitor student progress
• Practical AND effective strategies

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General Procedures for PALS

• PALS is conducted three times each week (about
  30-45 min. per session) but four times is
  recommended in Title I schools or very
  low-achieving schools.
• Students are rank ordered, split in half, and
  stronger readers in top half are paired with
  weaker readers in bottom half.
• Each pair is assigned to one of two teams.
• Teams and pairs remain together for 3-4 weeks,
  and partners work to earn points for their team
  each week.
• Within pairs, the stronger reader reads first to
  provide a model, but coach and reader roles are
  switched during each activity.
• Partners read text at the level of the weaker
  reader.
• Teachers monitor students, provide help, and
  award bonus points for good tutoring behaviors.

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PALS Activities for Kindergarten and First-Grade
Students

• Includes Teacher-Led Practice and Partner
  Activities Conducted in Pairs
• Phonological Awareness (e.g., saying first and
  last sounds, rhyming, counting
  sounds, segmenting, and blending)
• Letter-Sound Correspondences (e.g., letters and
  letter combinations)
• Decoding (e.g., words and sentences)
• Fluency (e.g., sight words, stories, and book
  reading)

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PALS in Grades 2-6

• Partner Reading (11-12 minutes)
• Stronger reader reads for 5 min
• Weaker reader rereads same text for 5 min
• Weaker reader retells selection for 1 min. in
  Grades 2-3 or for 2 min. in Grades 4-6
• Paragraph Shrinking (10 minutes)
• Stronger reader reads new text, stopping to
  summarize after each paragraph states the most
  important who or what, tells what mainly
  happened, and gives main idea statement in 10
  words or less (5 min.)
• Weaker reader continues with new text using same
  procedure (5 min.)
• Prediction Relay (10 minutes)
• Stronger reader makes prediction for next half
  page, reads half page, stops to verify prediction
  for 5 min.
• Weaker reader continues with new text using same
  strategy for 5 min.

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ApplicationCase Studies
148
General Considerations When Determining
Interventions

• Using research-validated instructional
  procedures Is there evidence for their
  effectiveness?
• Oral reading fluency or maze fluency
• Very low scores student likely would benefit
  from instruction in decoding and word
  identification
• Somewhat low scores student likely would benefit
  from fluency interventions
• Average scores student likely would benefit from
  vocabulary instruction and text comprehension
  strategies

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Case Study 1Jonahs CBM Graph
150
Jonah

• 2nd grader makes many errors during oral reading
  fluency assessments
• Word correct scores are lower than classmates
  30, 35, 28, 32, 40, 35, and 31
• Daily teacher-directed, whole-class instruction
  that includes some independent work also two
  days per week has two reading groups focused on
  skills-based activities three days per week has
  whole-class writing activities
• Score of 31 on last measure (seen on next slide)
  and Quick Miscue Analysis to illustrate types of
  miscues made on first 10
• What might you ask Jonahs teacher about
  structuring class time and activities for
  language arts? What type of intervention(s) might
  benefit Jonah?

151
Larry was very excited! His father 6 had
just brought home a new puppy. Larrys
14 brother and sister were going to be very
22 surprised, too. 24 The little puppy was
black and brown 31 with a few white patches.
Her ears were long 40 and floppy. Her tummy
nearly touched the 47 ground. Dad said this dog
was a beagle. 55 Larry thought their new dog
was cute. 62 He couldnt decide what he wanted
to name 70
saw him (T provided)
our b
mother was much
sorpray
pup blue
for much His hair was
funny teeth were torn
growl our puppy boy
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Word Written Word Spoken Grapho-phonemic Syntax Semantics
was saw no yes no
very him no no no
excited ----- no no no
just our no no no
brought b minimal no no
brother mother yes yes no
were was minimal yes yes
very much no yes yes
surprised sorpray yes no no
puppy pup yes yes yes
Quick Miscue Analysis Quick Miscue Analysis 30 50 30
153
Case Study 2Alexs CBM Graph
154
Case Study 2Alex

• Alex is a 3rd grade student in Mr. Simons
  general education classroom. Alex has always been
  a slow reader, and as the text has become more
  difficult, her reading has gotten even slower.
  Mr. Simon has asked the special education teacher
  for advice, because he isnt sure why Alex reads
  slowly. Mr. Simon has been collecting 1-minute
  samples of Alexs reading performance in grade
  level text and has been graphing that
  performance. For the last three weeks, Alexs
  scores have fallen below the goal line. On these
  passages, Alex has received the following scores
  
• Passage 157 wcpm, 3 errors (Sahara (teacher
  supplied--TS) desert (said dessert) arid
  (TS))
• Passage 258 wcpm, 2 errors (Thursday (said
  Tuesday) while (said whil))
• Passage 355 wcpm, 3 errors (passage (TS)
  blossoming (TS) garden (said garnet))
• For each passage, Mr. Simon also has Alex retell
  everything that she can remember about what she
  read. Alex retells an average of 87 of main
  story elements.
• Based on the information you have, what reading
  intervention might you suggest for Alex at this
  time?

155
Considerations When Determining What Reading
Strategies to Implement

• When will you implement interventions?
• How will you determine what intervention to
  implement?
• How often will you make decisions about which
  interventions to implement and whether
  interventions are working?

ACTION PLAN