Observational Learning

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Observational Learning

• Chapter 12
• Observational Learning, Language, and
  Rule-Governed Behavior

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Observational Learning

• Definition The learning of new behaviors by
  observing the behavior of others
• The individual exhibiting the behavior is called
  a Model
• Other terms for observational learning
• Imitation
• Modeling
• Social learning
• Vicarious learning

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Examples of Observational Learning

• Cook et al. (1985)
• Lab-reared monkeys were initially unafraid of
  snakes
• They observed other monkeys behaving fearfully
  toward snakes
• The lab-reared monkeys became intensely fearful
  of snakes

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Examples of Observational Learning

• Garlington and Dericco (1977)
• College students were asked to drink in pairs in
  a simulated tavern
• One of the pair was a confederate
• Subjects generally matched their rate of drinking
  to the confederates

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How might Observational Learning Work?

• Classical Conditioning component
• CS (laughter) ? UCS (pleasant, funny event)
• UCR (laugh, smile)
• CS (laughter)
• CR (laugh, smile)

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How might Observational Learning Work?

• Operant Conditioning Component
• If the model is reinforced for the behavior, the
  modeler is more likely to try it if the model
  is punished, then the observer is less likely to
  try it
• If the observer models the behavior and is
  reinforced, then they will be more likely to do
  that behavior again, and if punished, then less
  likely
• The choice of a model gets reinforced or
  punished, and the circumstances will also
  determine if a modeled behavior is likely to be
  reinforced or punished

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Determinants of Imitation

• Personal characteristics of the model
• Social status (e.g., Lefkowitz, Blake, and
  Mouton, 1955 street-crossing confederate)
• Friendliness (e.g., Mischel and Grusec, 1966 with
  children imitating adults)
• Power (e.g., Mischel and Grusec, 1966 study, if
  children thought model was going to be their
  teacher)
• Resembles observer (Bussey and Bandura, 1984
  Dowling, 1984)

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Determinants of Imitation

• Consequences of the Models Behavior
• Kanfer and Marston, 1963
• Study had college students free-associate via
  headphones microphone
• Could hear other subjects

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Determinants of Imitation

• Whether or not the observer is explicitly
  reinforced for attending to the Models behavior
  (e.g., coach)
• If the observer can actually understand and
  duplicate the modeled behavior

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Observational Learning in Animals

• Early researchers such as Thorndike (1898) were
  not able to show imitation in animals
  experimentally
• Research on observational learning was shelved
  until the around the 1930s, and became popular
  in the 1960s with Banduras work
• Currently, there is a lot of research suggesting
  that observational learning is an important
  source of information about an animals
  environment

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Observational Learning in Animals

• The question is whether or not animals can show
  true imitation
• Duplication of a novel behavior or sequence of
  behaviors
• In order to achieve a specific goal
• Other processes that may produce similar
  behavior (not true imitation) include
• Stimulus or local enhancement
• Social facilitation

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Observational Learning in Animals

• Stimulus or Local Enhancement
• The increase in salience to the observer of
  important stimuli
• Due to the demonstrator or model making contact
  with those stimuli
• Social Facilitation
• An increase in the frequency or intensity of a
  response that is already in the animals
  repetoire
• When another conspecific is present and engaged
  in the target behavior at that time

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True Imitation in Pigeons

• Zentall and Hogan (1976)
• Observer pigeons were previously magazine trained
  and were otherwise naive
• Duplicate cage method hungry pigeons required
  to peck a lit key to receive grain
• 5 Groups
• OKP Observed a pigeon key-pecking for grain
• OE Observed a yoked pigeon eating from food
  hopper
• ON Observed a naïve bird in other chamber
• OE Observed an empty chamber
• OI Observed an empty chamber that had key-light
  and food hopper yoked to OKP groups model

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Zentall Hogan (1976) Results
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True Imitation in Animals?

• Zentall and Hogans 1976 study may not have
  completely ruled out some effect of local
  stimulus enhancement, but if one compares the OKP
  group to the OE and OI groups the results are
  pretty clear
• Enough additional studies have been conducted to
  suggest that there is true imitation in animals