SOCIETAL PSYCHOLOGY SESSION 5: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

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SOCIETAL PSYCHOLOGYSESSION 5 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

• OVERVIEW
• What are Social Institutions?
• Theoretical Ideas on Social Institutions
• Social Psychological
• Functionalist
• Social Institutions Power
• Social Institutions as Bureaucracies
• Professions Power
• The Physical Setting of Organisations
• Erving Goffman Total Institutions

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SOCIETAL PSYCHOLOGYSESSION 5 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

• 1. What are Social Institutions?
• basic modes of social activity followed by the
  majority of the members of a given society.
  Institutions involve norms and values to which
  large numbers of individuals conform, and all
  institutionalised modes of behaviour are
  protected by strong sanctions. Institutions form
  the bedrock of a society, because they
  represent relatively fixed modes of behaviour
  that endure over time. (Giddens, 2001, p.11)

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1. What are Social Institutions ?

• an institution is a set of rules that structure
  social interactions in particular ways for a set
  of rules to be an institution, knowledge of these
  rules must be shared by members of the relevant
  community or society. (Knight, 2004, p.2)
• We are all affected by many different social
  institutions. They determine our social behaviour
  and experiences, our hopes and aspirations and
  our roles in society.

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1. What are Social Institutions?

• Sociologists suggest that the following basic
  social institutions are found in
• all societies
• Economic through which goods/services are
  produced and distributed
• Political deals with authoritative allocation
  of public social goals and values e.g.
  government, legal
• Family/Kinship - which tend to deal with
  procreation, marriage, the family, the extended
  family and socialisation of the young
• Education socialisation preparation for
  citizenship
• Health deals with health healing
• Religion which deals with the promotion of
  personal meaning and understanding of ultimate
  concerns e.g. church
• In some societies we could also add social
  welfare institutions which deal with the
  provision of support to sustain or attain social
  functioning and a higher quality of life.

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2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

• Their primary objective is the satisfaction of
  specific social needs they have multiple
  functions to perform
• 2. They embody the values shared by their members
  e.g. U.K. government institutional values include
  democracy, open elections, equality before the
  law etc.
• 3. They are relatively permanent behavioural
  patterns established within them become
  tradition, e.g. monogamy in marriage in western
  societies (exception Mormon)
• 4. Their activities occupy a central place in
  society drastic change in one is likely to
  produce changes in others e.g. recession periods
  in economic institutions may affect jobs,
  stability of family life, quality of education,
  ability of government to provide necessary
  services

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2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

• 5. They are interdependent within a society
  each institution is structured/organised around
  expected set of norms, values, statuses, rules,
  groups, organisations and behaviours, e.g.
  educational institutions contain school systems,
  teachers, administrators etc. and have become
  extremely bureaucratic. High value placed on
  learning, accumulation of knowledge, achieving
  high grades, good study skills and co-operating
  with teachers/fellow pupils.
• 6. Their ideals are generally accepted by the
  majority of a society even if they dont
  participate in the institution e.g. a bachelor
  may agree with the function that marriage serves
  in society even though he chooses to stay apart
  from traditional structure.
• 7. They usually involve authority/power over
  someone else hierarchy of power e.g. education
  authority - head teacher heads of year/subjects
  teachers teaching assistants - pupils

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Social Institutions must deal with at least the
following universal issues

• Procreation new generation
• Sexual access and regulation of sexual norms
  through approved institutions e.g. marriage
• Care of the young fed, clothed, protected
• Socialisation way of life, in particular
  culture must be passed on
• Education information passed on

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• Religion deal with questions about origins and
  meaning of life/death
• Distribution of power agreement that designated
  persons will exercise accumulated authority in
  the name of those in the group
• Production, distribution and consumption of goods
  material needs of members. Decisions made.
• Social control provide legitimate forums for
  disagreements and specify punishments/ threats of
  punishments

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3. Theoretical Ideas on Social Institutions

• i. Deutsch (1985) - Social Psychological
• Suggested 4 fundamental bipolar psychological
• dimensions of interpersonal relationships in
  social
• institutions
• 1. Co-operation vs. Competition
• 2. Power Distribution (equal vs unequal)
• 3. Task-orientated vs. Social-emotional
• 4. Formal vs. Informal

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Deutsch psychological dimensions

• 1. Co-operation vs. Competition
• Co-operative systems - those in which individuals
  (or units) have
• interdependent goals, shared values, positive
  interrelatedness,
• sense of accountability to group, shared
  responsibility for one
• another and for maintenance of system, e.g.
  kibbutzim, worker
• owned co-operatives.
• Competitive systems - individuals have negatively
  linked goals,
• Common scale for measuring success (compared to
  others),
• emphasis on struggling to determine
  winners/losers and
• responsibility/accountability only for oneself
  e.g. education
• system, employees in traditional firms

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Deutsch psychological dimensions

• 2. Power Distribution (equal vs. unequal)
• Egalitarian power shared, equal access to
  information,
• education, equal opportunity to influence
  decisions,
• equal rights/vote, and equal access to economic
• resources/consumer goods. (often also
  co-operative)
• Hierarchical power distributed unevenly,
  greater
• power to those higher in hierarchy. (often also
• competitive

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Deutsch psychological dimensions

• 3. Task-orientated vs. Social-emotional
• Task orientated - Production-oriented,
  economic-oriented
• institutions
• Socio-emotional - Families, friendship groups
• 4. Formal vs. Informal
• Informal relationship - definitions of
  activities, times and
• locations are left largely to participants e.g.
  social clubs
• Formal relationships social rules/norms largely
  determine
• interactions. e.g. bureaucracy formal
  regulations (Merton,
• 1957).

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II. Functionalist Theories

• Examines institutions of society in terms of
  contribution to the maintenances of whole social
  system often referred to as systems theory
• Society has functional pre-requisites basic
  needs necessary for existence.
• Institutional arrangements such as education and
  family meet needs that are common to all
  societies e.g. Murdock (1949) family exists in
  all societies.
• But cant be assumed that social institutions
  perform same functions in all societies
• Functionalist theories propose that
• In any system made of interconnected parts there
  must be integration between these parts or a
  degree of fit.
• Social norms derived from same basic societal
  values structure behaviour in institutions of
  society, e.g. function of the family is to ensure
  continuity by reproduction and socialisation of
  new members function of religion is to integrate
  social system by reinforcing common values

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Functionalist theories

• a) Durkheim (1893)
• How can consensus be achieved in society?
• By consensus collective consciousness
  common beliefs/sentiments shared by all.
• For example, function of division of labour
  (through economic institutions) in modern society
  is social integration of individuals, achieved
  through performance of a variety of complementary
  roles, tasks.
• This brings about
• SOCIAL SOLIDARITY (moral order) impossible
  without consensus

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Functionalist theories

• Criticisms
• Functional unity of social institutions is
  doubtful e.g. society with various religious
  faiths, religion may divide, not unite.
• Any part of society may be functional,
  dysfunctional or non-functional
• No justification for assuming that family,
  religion etc. are necessary to all societies but
  functional alternatives may replace social
  institutions in some societies e.g. communism
  (replace religion)

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4. Social Institutions Power

• i). What is Power?
• Power is generally defined by social scientists
  as the ability to impose ones will on others,
  even in the face of resistance.
• "By power is meant every opportunity/possibility
  existing within a social relationship, which
  permits one to carry out one's own will, even
  against resistance, and regardless of the basis
  on which this opportunity rests." (Weber, 1946)

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i). What is Power?

• Power is relational saying that one
  person/party has power implies other
  people/parties in the relationship
• Power operates reciprocally to have power over
  others, one must control things they desire or
  deem necessary but with this nearly always comes
  reverse control (to a lesser, equal or greater
  extent), e.g. an employer controls wages, working
  conditions, promotion etc. but an employee can
  control whether they leave that employment, have
  more or less commitment to the job, form/join a
  union
• Balance of power - Because power is both
  relational reciprocal there is always a
  balance of power all parties to all
  relationships have some form of power

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ii). Michel Foucault (1980)

• Power and knowledge inextricably linked
• Foucault claims belief systems (such as those in
  social institutions) gain momentum (and hence
  power) as more people come to accept the
  particular views associated with that belief
  system as common knowledge.
• Belief systems define their figures of authority,
  such as medical doctors, teachers or priests
• Within belief systems (or discourse) ideas
  crystallize as to what is right and what is
  wrong, what is normal and what is deviant -
  certain views, thoughts or actions become
  unthinkable.
• These undeniable "truths", come to define a
  particular way of seeing the world, and the
  particular way of life associated with such
  "truths" becomes normalised.
• Resistance, through defiance, defines power and
  hence becomes possible through power. Without
  resistance, power is absent

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Foucault Power Knowledge

• "...in a society such as ours...there are
  manifold relations of power that permeate,
  characterize and constitute the social body, and
  these relations of power cannot themselves be
  established, consolidated nor implemented without
  the production, accumulation, circulation and
  functioning of a discourse." (Foucault, 1980)

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iii) Max Weber Social Power (1948) - Power is
legitimised by authority

• Three Models of Authority
• Charismatic derives from devotion felt by
  subordinates for leader believed to have
  exceptional qualities e.g. Napoleon, Fidel
  Castro. Also teachers, managers may use charisma
  for power.
• Traditional belief in established customs and
  traditions. Obedience based on traditional status
  (usually inherited). Loyalty and obligation to
  positions of power e.g. royalty, nobles
• Rational-legal based on acceptance of
  impersonal rules. Others accept legal framework
  supporting authority e.g. judge, tax inspector,
  military commander. Rules which authority based
  on are rational in that constructed for goal
  attainment and way to attain it e.g. laws to
  achieve goal of justice.
• Weber believed that rational-legal authority
  produced bureaucracies

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5. Social Institutions as Bureaucracies

• Bureaucracies as most efficient form of
  organisation -
• (Weber 1864-1920)
• de Gournay coined the term "bureaucracy" (18th
  century) referring to large organisations
• According to Weber, all large-scale organisations
  tend to be bureaucratic in nature.
• Bureaucracies are particular types of social
  institutions and can be considered as social
  systems.
• Depts. of state, political parties, business
  enterprises, military, education, health care,
  churches may all be organised as bureaucracies.

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Webers Theory (Ideal Type) of Bureaucracy
(re-published 1968)

• Hierarchy - clear-cut administrative hierarchy,
  ordered system of superordination and
  subordination every position is accountable to
  and supervised by a higher office.
• Specialisation official tasks and positions
  clearly divided each covering distinct and
  separate area of competence.
• Rules consistent system of activities and
  mutual relations regulated by rules (written and
  extensively defined) not personal feelings
  towards colleagues/clients. Little room for
  personal initiative/discretion.
• Impersonality everyone within the organisation
  subject to formal equality of treatment.
• Officials (full-time and salaried) selected on
  the basis of technical qualifications (or clearly
  recognised criteria). Individuals expected to
  make career within organisation. Promotion
  possible on basis of capability, seniority, or
  mixture of two (objective criteria).

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Ideal Type of Bureacracy - Weber

• Public-private division clear separation
  between official activity and private life.
• No members of organisation own the resources with
  which they operate separation of workers from
  means of production. Unlike traditional
  communities (e.g. farmers, craft workers,
  controlled processes of production, owned tools
  they used), workers do not own offices they work
  in, desks they sit at etc.
• These bureaucratic tendencies flourished under
  modern Western
• capitalism but they were not new, previously
  found in ancient Egypt,
• China, Roman Empire.
• Effect of increasing bureaucracy was to advance a
  process Weber
• called the disenchantment of the world (the
  removal of all sense of
• mystery or meaning from life, reducing it to
  mundane, routine)

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5. Professions Power

• Barber (1963) functionalist view
• Four essential attributes of professions
• Systematic/generalised knowledge applied to
  variety of problems e.g. doctors
• Concern for interests of community rather than
  self
• interest (altruism).
• Strictly controlled by code of ethics established
  and maintained by professional qualifications and
  learned as part of training e.g. Hippocratic Oath
  (doctors), BPS ethical standards (psychologists)
• High rewards in terms of earnings/prestige
  reflect value of contribution to society

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5. Professions Power

• Parry Parry, 1976 Weberian perspective
• 1. Restricted entry into professions control of
  training, qualifications required and numbers
  deemed necessary this maintains high demand for
  services and gains high rewards
• 2. Professional associations promote view that
  professional conduct above reproach/committed to
  public service. They discipline their own members
  in order to prevent scrutiny and maintain
  image?
• 3. Claim that only members qualified to provide
  services. Often reinforced by law e.g.
  solicitors monopoly on particular services.
• Therefore professions can control rival
  occupational groups which
• might threaten their dominance.
• Conclusions read handout

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6. The Physical Setting of Organizations

• Michel Foucaults Theory of Organizations
• The Control of Time and Space (1970, 1979)
• Foucault believed that the structure and
  architecture of an organisation influenced the
  social make-up and practices within.
• For example, in assembly-line production, the
  workers are quite often in large open rooms so
  that they can be seen by their superiors,
  ensuring that their job is being done. Their
  visibility determines how easily those who are
  not in charge can be subject to what Foucault
  called surveillance.

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6. The Physical Setting of Organizations

• Two kinds of surveillance
• 1. Direct surveillance - as in classrooms where
  the teacher instructs the class.
• 2. Surveillance by written records - Records are
  kept as evaluations to regulate how one is
  performing and to monitor behaviour.
• Examples
• High school and college reports
• Timetables ensure that a person's duty within an
  organisation is being carried out. They regulate
  activities across time and space. In Foucault's
  words, they "efficiently distribute bodies"
  around the organisation, e.g. universities
  timetables for lecture periods.

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Prisons Surveillance

• Foucault was especially interested in prisons,
  commenting on the fact that prisons resemble
  other organisations like "factories, barracks,
  and hospitals."
• According to Foucault (1975) the modern prison
  originated from a design by Jeremy Bentham
  (1748-1832) in the 1800's. It was called
  "Panopticon" (all seeing) and was a prison
  designed for maximum surveillance. see
  http//cartome.org/panopticon1.htm for further
  info

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Prisons Surveillance
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Prisons Surveillance

• "Hence the major effect of the Panopticon to
  induce in the inmate a state of conscious and
  permanent visibility that assures the automatic
  functioning of power. (Foucault, 1975)
• Prisons designed exactly like Panopticon never
  materialised but consider Supermax prisons in
  U.S.A. in terms of maximum surveillance. See link
  http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermax for
  further brief description.

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Symbolic Interactionist approach
• A total institution may be defined as a place of
  residence and work where a large number of
  like-situated individuals, cut off from the wider
  society for an appreciable period of time,
  together lead an enclosed, formally administered
  round of life

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Every institution captures something of the
  time and interest of its members and provides
  something of a world for them in brief, every
  institution has encompassing tendenciesTheir
  encompassing or total character is symbolised by
  the barrier to social intercourse with the
  outside and to departure that is often built
  right into the physical plant, such as locked
  doors, high walls, barbed wire, cliffs, water,
  forests, or moors. These establishments I am
  calling total institutions, and it is their
  general characteristics I want to explore.

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Goffman (1968) suggested that total
  institutions can be
• grouped in the following 5 ways
• Institutions established to care for persons felt
  to be both incapable and harmless these are the
  homes for the blind, the aged, the orphaned, and
  the poor.
• Places established to care for persons felt to be
  incapable of looking after themselves and a
  threat to the community, albeit an unintended
  one TB sanitaria, mental hospitals.
• Institutions organised to protect the community
  against what are felt to be intentional dangers
  to it, with the welfare of the persons in these
  institutions not the immediate issue jails,
  penitentiaries, P.O.W. camps, and concentration
  camps.

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• 4. Institutions supposedly established to pursue
• work-like tasks and justifying themselves only on
  these
• instrumental grounds army barracks, ships,
  boarding
• schools, work camps, colonial compounds, and
  large
• mansions from the point of view of those who live
  in the
• servants' quarters.
• 5. Establishments designed as retreats from the
  world even
• while often serving also as training stations for
  the
• religious examples are abbeys, monasteries,
  convents,
• and other cloisters.

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Whilst individuals in modern society typically
  sleep, play and work
• in different places with different
  co-participants, under different
• authorities, and without an over-all rational
  plan - the central
• feature of total institutions is a breakdown of
  the barriers
• ordinarily separating these three spheres of
  life. In that,
• All aspects of life are conducted in the same
  place and under the same central authority.
• Each phase of the member's daily activity is
  carried on in the immediate company of a large
  batch of others, all of whom are treated alike
  and required to do the same thing together.

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• All phases of the day's activities are tightly
  scheduled, with one activity leading at a
  prearranged time into the next, the whole
  sequence of activities being imposed from above
  by a system of explicit formal rulings and a body
  of officials.
• Finally, the various enforced activities are
  brought together into a single rational plan
  purportedly designed to fulfil the official aims
  of the institution
• Some of these characteristics could be found in
  other places e.g. family but not usually
  regimented and not necessarily carried out in
  immediate company of similar others

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Inmate World within Total Institutions
• Typical for inmates to come with a presenting
  culture derived from a home world
• Integration into total institution may entail a
  kind of disculturation or untraining which
  makes it difficult for person to adjust to old
  way of life once they leave the institution.
• Can create tensions between total institution and
  home.
• Admission to total institution may entail
  trimming or programming where new arrival
  allows him/herself to be shaped and coded into
  an object that can be fed into administrative
  machinery of establishment. 
• Examples ???

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• May involve obedience tests at outset
• Possessions are taken and with that ones sense
  of self
• Stripped of usual appearance
• May suffer personal self defacement stripped of
  ones identity kit
• Certain movements, postures, and stances will
  convey lowly images of the individual -
  examples??
• Physical stance required to hold body in
  humiliating pose perform verbal acts of
  deference (e.g., saying sir, begging, humbly
  asking for little things like permission to drink
  water)

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7. Erving Goffman Total Institutions

• Conclusions
• Total institution strips person of belief that
  they have any command over their world that they
  are individuals with adult self determination,
  autonomy, and freedom of action.
• Inmates must show internalisation of the views
  held by the institutions staff
• Inmates use of speech also shows their personal
  lack of self efficacy
• External Mortification (humiliation) is
  complimented by self/internal mortification
• Mortification is officially rationalised in terms
  of sanitation, security, its for your own
  good.
• Demonstrates importance of power in some
  contemporary social institutions e.g. mental
  hospitals, care homes for elderly and children,
  youth offender hostels etc.