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Episodic and semantic memory

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Title: Episodic and semantic memory


1
Lecture 503-12-2007
  • Episodic and semantic memory

2
Plan
  • Contents of episodic memory
  • Irrelevant memories
  • Repetition and practice
  • Organization and distinctiveness
  • The remember/know distinction
  • Organization of semantic memory
  • Episodic and semantic memory a comparison
  • Relations between episodic and semantic memory
    the SPI model

3
Introducing remarks
  • Episodic memory memories of events that we
    experienced, concerns ones own past and facts
    personally experienced, possible to locate in
    time and space
  • Semantic memory other than personal character,
    contains general world knowledge necessary for
    language use shared with other people

4
Contents of episodic memory serial position
effects
  • Primacy effect superior memory for items at the
    beginning of a sequence
  • Recency effect superior memory for items at the
    end of a sequence
  • Both effects are present in STM and LTM, but
    their interpretations are different
  • In STM, the primacy effect is representing
    long-term storage, the recency effect short-term
    storage
  • In LTM, the primacy effect may reflect higher
    distinctiveness, novelty, lower interference the
    recency effect higher distinctiveness, lower
    forgetting effects both lower interference

5
Contents of episodic memory levels of
representation
  • Craik and Lockaharts levels of processing
    framework deeper, semantic encoding leads to
    stronger memory traces shallow processing leads
    to weak memory traces
  • Texts representation surface form, text base and
    mental model
  • Surface form is forgot quickly, text base had a
    more durable retention, mental model remembered
    over long periods of time

6
Episodic memory retention for information at
different levels of representation
7
Contents of episodic memory recall cues
  • Recall or retrieval cue a prompt directing
    retrieval
  • Cues in general improve retrieval because the
    information in the cues is also present in the
    memory traces
  • Types of cues feature cues and context cues
  • Feature cues involve components of the memory
    itself self is a very powerful memory cue (the
    self-reference effect)
  • Context cues involve parts of the environment
    linguistic, external and internal context

8
Contents of episodic memory context
  • Encoding specificity principle
  • Godden and Baddeleys study with divers as an
    example of memory depending of external context
  • Probably stronger for recall than recognition
  • Does it matter where students take exams?
  • Evidences for a context effect with music and
    odors (Proust effect)
  • State-dependent memory alcohol, nicotine,
    marijuana

9
External context Godden and Baddeleys study
10
State-dependent memory sober or intoxicated
11
Mood-dependent and mood-congruent memory
  • It is easier to recall positive stimuli when in
    positive mood, and negative stimuli when in
    negative mood
  • Recall is better if people are in the same mood
    as when encoding the information
  • A negative role of the effect in depression
  • Maybe encoding specificity and state-dependent
    memory are forms of mood-congruent memory

12
Transfer appropriate processing
  • Memory is better when at retrieval the same or
    similar mental processes are used as at encoding
  • Overall memory is better when encoding in a
    semantic way (Craik and Lockharts levels of
    processing theory), but
  • the effect of the matching between encoding and
    the memory test may be very strong
  • Semantic processing had a stronger positive
    impact on explicit memory tests shallow
    processing on implicit memory tests

13
Irrelevant memories interference
  • Negative transfer prior learning impedes the
    ability to learn new information
  • The amount of negative transfer is a function of
    the degree of overlap between the old and new
    information
  • Proactive interference old knowledge results in
    the increased forgetting of new knowledge (or
    greater difficulties in retrieval)
  • Release from proactive interference Wickens
    procedure

14
Stimulus lists from proactive interference study
15
Results from a study of release from proactive
interference
16
Retroactive and associative interference
  • Retroactive interference occurs when new
    knowledge makes it difficult to recall old
    knowledge
  • How the delay time before recall is spent matters
    for the interference effect it is better to go
    to sleep after learning than learning something
    else
  • Associative interference due to associations
    linked with items and not to the temporal
    sequence
  • Fan effect the more you know, the harder it is
    to remember new information.Is it always the
    case?

17
How to reduce interference?
  • Extensive practice
  • Learning dissimilar materials one after the other
  • Change learning strategies
  • Change the context of learning
  • Make pauses
  • Inhibition part-set cuing directed forgetting
    negative priming repeated practice effect

18
Repetition and practice
  • Repetition effect the more a person is exposed
    to information, the more likely it will be
    remembered
  • Massed practice (learning in a single, lengthy
    session) and distributed practice (spaced
    practice), distributed across multiple study
    sessions
  • In general, memory is better following
    distributed practice than massed practice
  • The longer the spacing between the distributed
    practices, the better the memory
  • But massed practice provide higher reminiscence

19
Effects of massed versus spaced practice on
subsequent memory
20
Why spaced practice gives better results as
compared to massed practice?
  • Deficient processing with massed practice
    consolidation is worse and concerns one memory
    trace habituation occurs with massed practice
    and the level of attention is lower as the
    memory traces are fresh, people assume they
    remember better and devote less time and effort
    to learning
  • Encoding variability the contexts in massed
    practice are the same giving less retrieval cues
  • Dual processes both deficient processing and
    encoding variability

21
Overlearning and permastore
  • Overlearning practice of the already memorized
    information
  • Overlearning strengths memory traces and
    increases resistance to forgetting
  • Bahricks studies on the retention of school
    materials an initial period of forgetting of
    about three years and stable retention after
    (permastore)
  • Forgetting occurs at about the same rate for
    everybody, so knowing more at the beginning means
    having larger knowledge in permastore

22
Organization and distinctiveness
  • Organization of the to-be-remembered-information
    improves episodic memory
  • Subjective organization is especially helpful,
    although it takes more time and effort
  • Distinctiveness items that are different (more
    salient or unique) from other items are better
    remembered
  • Bizarre imagery bizarreness may help memory, but
    the effect is less universal than it is claimed
  • Interactive imagery usually proves to help memory

23
The remember/know distinction
  • Remember judgments reflect the belief that an
    event occurred evidence of episodic memory
    (autonoetic I know that I know)
  • Know judgments reflect a feeling of familiarity
    evidence of semantic memory (noetic I know)
  • A double dissociation between these two types of
    responses
  • Nondeclarative (procedural) memory is considered
    as being anoetic (unconscious) I don't know
    that I know

24
Factors affecting remember but not know
  • Depth of processing
  • Generation effects
  • Frequency of occurrence
  • Divided attention at encoding
  • Retention interval
  • Reading silently or aloud
  • Intentional versus incidental learning
  • Serial position

25
Factors affecting know but not remember
  • Repetition priming
  • Stimulus modality
  • Amount of maintenance rehearsal
  • Suppression of focal attention

26
Factors affecting rememberand know in
opposite ways
  • Word versus nonword memory
  • Massed versus distributed practice
  • Gradual versus abrupt presentations
  • Learning emphasizing similarities versus
    differences
  • Different neurological mechanisms for both types
    of responses

27
Organization of semantic memory
  • Concepts and categories prototype theory
    exemplar theory explanation-based theory
  • Ordered relations semantic distance effect
    semantic congruity effect serial position effect
  • Schemas and scripts
  • The organization of semantic memory is described
    by some of the long-term memory models reviewed
    in lecture 4

28
Differences between episodic and semantic memory
information
29
Differences between episodic and semantic memory
operations 1
30
Differences between episodic and semantic memory
operations 2
31
Differences between episodic and semantic memory
usage
32
Relations between memory systems Tulvings SPI
model
  • The relations between three main memory systems
    of perceptual representation, semantic memory and
    episodic memory are specific in relation to
    processes
  • Encoding has a serial character (S)
  • Storage is parallel (P)
  • Retrieval is independent (I)
  • Systems are organized in a hierarchical way
  • Different aspects of the information are
    separately stored in each system

33
Schematic SPI model
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