"Minorities in Europe

1
"Minorities in EuropeSession 8 Russian
minority in abroad. The case of the Baltic States

• Denis Gruber
• Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
  University
• DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

2
Classical American Sociology of migration

• Assimilation Integration
• a one-side process which has to be fulfilled by
  migrants / ethnic minorities (cf. Sellin 1938,
  Park/Burgess 1921)
• the goal is full assimilation of migrants and
  their descendants
• cultural adaptation of migrants to the culture of
  the majority society
• 5 stages of race relation cycle (Robert E. Park
  / Ernest W. Burgess 1921)
• migration into a new territory
• after a peaceful phase of becomming acquainted a
  competition for short ressources arise
• results in a conflict
• segregation and separation of the ethnic group
  and increased interethnic contacts and
  intermingling (melting pot)
• full assimilation adisbandment of ethnic group(s)

3
Newer American Sociology of migration

• Shmuel N. Eisenstadt (1954) 3 stages of
  assimilation of Jews in Israel
• migration and absorption of minorities (absolute
  adaptation of the members of diaspora)
• minorities have to orientate by re-sozialisation
  to the norms of the majority society and old
  (traditional) norms do not have further relevance
• absorption is more an exception than a rule what
  results in stratification of the minority
  societies

4
Newer American Sociology of migration

• Gordon (1964) assimilation as a 7th stage
  process, but not all stages have to be passed by
  immigrants because there is not a logical order
  of stages
• main focus on passing a structural assimilation
• Integration of minorities depends on their
  capabilities to incorporate in institutions of
  the majority society
• assimilation is often not succesful because it
  stops at the behavioral level
• melting pot- conzept has failed because
  segregation and isolation by US American society
  hinder one-sided expectations of assimilation
• integration does not only depend on the will of
  minorities or migrants, but also by the will of
  the majority society and nation-state integration
  policy to eleminate ethnic discrimination and to
  guarantee the same law for all citizens

5
Newer American Sociology of migration

• in the following years more and more a view was
  constructed that integration is not only a
  singular task of migrants or minorialso an active
  participation of the members of the majority
  society
• Ronald Taft (1957) Stage model of assimilation
  contradicts the formal adaptation of only one
  unit to the other one and emphasizes the
  possibility of mutual adaptation, which takes
  place by interactions and parallel existence of
  the groups
• assimilative social integration depends on
  contextual conditions of the host state

6
Hartmut Esser - Assimilation

• Assimilation is not a political concept of
  ethnic or cultural adaptation
• adoptation of different groups in certain
  characteristis as language ability and filling
  of jobs
• assimilation does not mean absolute equality of
  actors because also the domestic population is
  not homogenous
• important is the fact that there are no
  systematic differences in the distribution of
  certain characteristics and ressources
  fordifferent groups in one society
• assimilation means dissolution of systematic
  differences between groups and categories, but
  not the equality of individuals in every
  department
• there can be social inequalities but not between
  ethnic groups!
• domestic and minority population participate
  equally at laws and ressources of a society
  (Esser 200121 f.)

7
Annett Treibel (1999

• Assimilation is not the state or result of
  adaptation but a process of gradual adaptation
• for Heckmann (1992) the will for acculturation of
  migrants is a necessary but not sufficient
  condition for integration ? results often in
  accomodation ? refers to a gradual form of
  assimilation
• learning and adaptation processes of persons
  which by a change of location have to appropriate
  basic means and rules of communication and
  activity of the new society and knowledge of
  institutions and belief systems to be able for
  interaction and working (Heckmann 1992 168)
• Aus dieser Definition geht hervor, dass sich
  Migranten und ethnische Minderheiten einen
  bestimmten Fundus von Wissensbeständen und
  Qualifikationen aneignen, der für die
  Kommunikation in der Mehrheitsgesellschaft
  notwendig ist, allerdings brauchen sich hierdurch
  nicht notwendigerweise die Denkweisen, Werte,
  Vorlieben und Überzeugungen der Migranten und
  Minderheitenakteure zu verändern.

8
Assimilation or Integration

• Asimilaton adaption of language, cultural
  traditions, norms, behavior patterns of the host
  society
• in contradiction to cultural and ethnic pluralis
• Integration processes by which migrants or
  minorities will be accepted members of the host
  society
• mutual process which have to be fulfilled by
  minorities and majority
• requires efforts and good will

9
Integration

• Interactions by actors and actors interaction in
  the social system
• Integration depens on the willingness of migrants
  and/or ethnic minorities as well as orientations
  and problem solutions of the titular society
• Integration requires the disappearing of ethnic
  discrimination and the acceptance of the same
  laws for ethnic majorities as well as minorities
  (Gordon, 1964252)

10
Integration

• is() a process of political and social
  inclusion of the excluded, and was defined in
  an operational way as a process of removing
  barriers which prevented non-Estonians from
  participating in the local social and political
  life, from being competitive in the labour
  market, and from taking advantage of the
  opportunities of the Estonian educational
  system. (Lauristin/Heidmets 2002b 324)

11

• noticeable in this view on integration is that
  the propagate approach of the Estonian government
  does not distinguish between Integration and
  Inclusion
• No difference between systemic Integration and
  social integration of migrants and/or members
  of ethnic groups
• Common understanding of integration and
  inclusion means that the individual integration
  process in the Lebenswelt is similarily to the
  inclusion in the Estonian titular society
  (special rights, occupying of certain positions,
  appropriation of important societal ressources)
• therefore it is important to distinguish between
  the complex processes of systemic and social
  integration of the Russian Minority in Estonia

12

• use of the integration approach of German scholar
  Hartmut Esser (1999, 2001)
• differs between social and systemic integration
  
• allows to focus on processes of inclusion and
  exclusion of ethnic minorities
• on the one hand, social and systemic integration
  can be distinguished as single units, but
  otherwise systemic integration is pursued by
  actors interaction
• In this way, the sociological differentiation of
  social system theory and actors theory have
  to be seen as an interplay, because actors are
  able to consolidate and change social systems

13
Systemic Integration

• takes place independently (anonymiously) from the
  motives and relationships of individual actors
• refers to the integration in a social system like
  integration in the world-market, nation-state,
  international concerns, corporative actors or
  supra-national entities like the EU
• refers to particular mechanisms of the market,
  institutioanl laws of the nation-state and
  particular media resources (not mass media, but
  money)

14
Social Integration

• focuses on motives, orientations, and purposes of
  individual actors,
• refers to the embedding process of individual
  actors in a social system
• is associated with the grant of laws, learning of
  the titular populations language, embedding in
  the education system and the national employment
  market, interethnic friendships and
  identification with the nation-state
• my thesis succesful social integration of
  ethnic minorities can not only be evaluated by
  their embedding in the Lebenswelt but also by
  their inclusion in the sub-systems of the social
  system of the titular society and possibilities
  to control important resources in state and
  society

15
Spheres of Social Integration

• titular society
• ethnic community in the titular society (Russian
  group in Estonia)
• Society of origin (kinship, ethnic networks,
  transnatonalism, translocalism)

16
Four types of social integration

• plural integration integration in the titular
  society as well as in the ethnic community and
  the society of origin
• segmentation / segregation integration in an
  ethnic milieu (Chinese in New York, Turkeys in
  Berlin) ? establishment of We-Groups
• marginalisation Park (1928, marginal man)
  disintegration in the titular society as well as
  in the society of origin/ethnic community ?
  processes of self-exclusion, no language
  assimilation, marginal interactions and
  identification with the own ethnic community as
  well as members of the titular society
• assimilation dominant model of integration in
  European societies

17
Dimensions of social integration

• Placement
• societal position of migrants and/or ethnic
  minorities in a social system e.g. labour
  market positions
• important for pursuing ressources
• bounded to certain laws, like citizenship,
  election laws
• Culturation
• process of adoptation
• necessary knowledge and qualifications for the
  interaction in the titular society, like language
• often results in acculturation semi or partial
  culturation

18
Acculturation

• exchange of cultural features that results when
  groups of individuals having different cultures
  come into continuous first hand contact
• original cultural patterns of either or both
  groups may be altered, but the groups remain
  distinct (cf. Kottak 2007)
• anthropologists Redfield, Linton and Herskovits
  (1936, p. 149) developed the oft quoted
  definition
• "Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which
  result when groups of individuals having
  different cultures come into continuous
  first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in
  the original culture patterns of either or both
  groups".

19
Dimensions of social integration

• Interactions
• helpful for minority actors to come in contact
  with the members of the titular society
• Identification
• emotional/identificative orientation of actors
  with the titular society as well as the society
  of origin

20
Ethnic Russian Minority in Estonia

• have an ethnic Russian migration background (even
  descendants of migrations migrants of the 2nd or
  3rd generation)
• have citizenship of Estonia, Russia or are
  stateless
• are using the Russian language in everyday life
  as primary language

21
The question of citizenship

• members of the Russian group have been divided in
  two sub-groups
• Those who have been already lived in the First
  Estonian Republic f(1918-1940) and their
  descendants)
• those who were comming to ESSR as labourforce in
  the course of the industrialisation process
• last group has been classified by conservative
  Estonian Politicians as a threat for the achieved
  national souveranity and where called from now on
  Aliens

22
Alien

• Term Alien (Estonian muulane) is used for a
  person of another nationalitaty (Alien Law by
  July 1992)
• An alien is a person who is not an Estonian
  citizen and aliens staying in Estonia are
  guaranteed rights and freedoms equal to those of
  Estonian citizens unless the constitution, this
  Act, other Acts or international agreements of
  Estonia provide otherwise. Aliens are guaranteed
  the rights and freedoms arising from the
  generally recognised rules of international law
  and international custom. Aliens staying in
  Estonia are required to observe the
  constitutional order and legislation of Estonia.

23
Statelessness

• main problem of exclusive citizenship regulations
  refers to the large number of non-citizens in
  Estonia
• marker for lacking placement in the political
  system of Estonia (cf. Barrington 1995,
  Poleshchuk 2004, Semjonova 2001), emphasized also
  by UNHCR (2007a) und Amnesty International (2006)
• although the number of stateless has decreased
  from ca. 400,000 in 1991 to 124,681 in 2007, a
  rising stagnition for citizenship by
  naturalization is obvious (cf. EMFA 2005)
• more than the half of applicants are minors of
  which more than one third passed the language and
  citizenship test (ibid.)
• on the average more than 60 per cent of
  apllicants pass the waystage user-Test (cf.
  Tomusk 2002 46)
• relatively low success rate has to be traced back
  to the fact that individual efforts and
  test-specific requirements have to be fulfilled
  to get Estonian citizenship
• otherwise one has to give attention to the fact
  that ca. 275,000 ethnic Russians who have been
  stateless did not decide for Estonian but for
  Russian citizenship

24
Connection between citizenship and ressources

• What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide
  for Estonian citizenship?
• What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide
  for Russian citizenship?
• What are the reasons that ethnic Russians in
  Estonia decide to stay stateless?

25
Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship
and its functions

• by Estonian citizenship comprehensive political
  rights (e.g. right to vote) and possible upward
  moility in high political and administrative
  positions can be reached
• those ethnic Russians without Estonian
  citizenship are missing automatically lower
  political rights of participation
• non-citizens of Estonia do not have the
  possibility to practice active and passive
  electoral rights by the election of the Estonian
  national assembly
• they also do not have the passive electoral right
  in local elections
• Non-Estonians do not can candidate for political
  positions and administrative positions as well as
  do not can work in leading positions of state
  enterprises (cf. EP 2000)
• only Estonian citizens can be member of Estonian
  political parties what complicate the
  representation of interest of non-citizens (cf.
  Elsuwege 2004 26)

26
Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship
and its functions

• ethnic Russians are conscious about their
  decission to apply for Estonian citizenship or
  not
• will to become an Estonian and will for placement
  (political inclusion) depends on very rational
  motives and criteria
• to be a full member of the Estonian society
• to have better chances on the Estonian and EU
  labour market
• to give children a better future and career
  chances
• to be EU-citizen and not be exluded from taking
  part in elections (elections of the European
  Parliament)
• for younger stateless persons a trend is obvious
  that a decission pro Estonia offers
  opportunities
• possibilities to travel in EU without barriers
  and to study and work there

27
Reasons for application for Russian citizenship
and its functions

• three main reasons
• Measures of Russias diaspora policy
• existence of social networks
• appropriation of economic advantages
• Appropriation of pension entitlements
• Economy of Citizenship

28

• Russias diaspora policy
• particularities in the bilateral relations
  between Russia and Estonia lies in the fact that
  both have a different general view on history
  (cf. Budryte 2005, in 2006, Wehner 2006)
• Baltic States show for Putins Russia the
  biggest tragedy of the 20th century (Putin
  quotes in Wehner 2006), because the internal
  erosion of the Soviet state strted with the
  independence attempts of the Baltic states
• quintessential point of the historical quarrel
  refers to the fact that Putin does not recognise
  the occupation of the Baltic states by Stalin as
  a result of the confidential additional protocol
  of the Molotow-Ribbentrop- pact.
• Putins Russia looks at the annexation of the
  Baltic States by the Soviet army as a voluntary
  act to join the Soviet Union
• Estonia emphasizes mass deportations, suppression
  and terror during the Soviet occupation (cf.
  Wehner 2006).
• to accept the full independence of the Baltic
  states (cf. Kolstø 1995)
• Russia protests regularly against citizenship
  regulations concerning its minority and against
  the restrictive language policy, loss of
  importance of Russian language and regulations
  concerning electoral laws (cf. Dorodnova 2000)
• highlighting the fact of ethnic discrimination
  (cf. Hughes 2005) and continuing Russiaphobie"
  (cf. Long 2003)

29

• Russias diaspora policy
• some authors (Dittmer 2003, Kolstø 1995) find out
  that the loyalty of ethnic Russians with the
  members of the Estonian titular society is rather
  low, because Estonia like Latvia did not grant
  citizenship automatically after independence
• On the other hand, Russia granted already in 1991
  every ethnic Russian in the successor states of
  the SU the possibility "automatically" to accept
  the Russian citizenship (cf. Mironov/Mironov
  2003) ? but since 2001 "automatic citizenship
  was not furthermore granted
• nevertheless, since 2003 Russia recognised that
  demographic changes (natural ageing and sinking
  birth rates) require to find new solutions for
  ethnic Russians abroad (Russian Diaspora in the
  successor states of the SU) (cf. NOVOSTI 2006c)
• By specific recruitment of members of the
  Diaspora in the former Soviet republics the
  demographic problem beyond the metropolises
  Moscow and St. Petersburg shall be solved (cf.
  Pörzgen 2007)
• as a result the conditions of entry and coming
  home to Russia as well as citizenship-specific
  regulations (restrictions) were eased for Russian
  "compatriots (cf. NOVOSTI 2006d)

30

• Russias diaspora policy
• Putin
• We know about the fact that the overwhelming
  majority of Russians and other ethnic groups from
  the Russian federation do not live abroad because
  they it wish We will do everything to help
  those who want to come back to their motherland
  We must to deal with realities which
  determine the life. Above all, it is about the
  return of our compatriots in such territories of
  today's Russia which urgently need manpower ()
  The level of moving allowance depends on the need
  of manpower in the regions. Where the need is
  especially big, the move money will be more.
  (Putin quotes in Pörzgen 2007)
• In October 2006, the coordination gremium of the
  Russian compatriots was founded at the world
  congress of compatriots in St. Petersburg (cf.
  NOVOSTI 2007a)
• President Putin asked 600 delegates from nearly
  80 countries for vigorous support of his
  voluntary remigration programme (cf. RIAN 2007a)
• Only in 2007, 4,6 milliard roubles from the
  household of the federation were provided to
  finance moving allowance and to support job
  searches and school choice

31

• Russias diaspora policy
• in RDP is strong emphasis on the identity concept
• Kortunow (199715) speaks about a selective
  engagement, which gives returns to a
  construction of an Ethnic-Russian, more precise
  Rossianian identity, and uses for this symbolic
  acts, e.g. the visit of a delegation of Duma
  members after the quarrel about the dismantling
  of the Soviet memorial in Tallinn in April, 2007
• this conflict about the demolition of the
  soldier's monument makes in all sharpness clear
  that Russia anytime is able to mobilize above all
  younger ethnic Russians in the close foreign
  countries (Savoskul 2001)
• selectice engagment means a policy of
  pinpricks To be 'selective' means to use
  different rules in different situations, to
  abstain from every universal approach, to
  renounce general rules (Kortunov 1997)
• proponents of selective engagement assume that
  Russia does not have enough resources to rebuild
  the Russian or previous Soviet empire or to build
  up a security system on the territory of the
  former Soviet Union, but
• on the other hand, Russia can not afford a
  isolationistic policy, that is why selective
  engagement reffering to neighbouring states
  means first of all to show several regional and
  subregional arrangements with different degrees
  of Russian participation (Kortunow 199715)

32

• Russias diaspora policy
• not only by symbolic acts, also by financial
  support Russia is supporting its diaspora
• in 2007 approx. 10 million Euro were given abroad
  to support the organisation of school holidays,
  the care of veterans, supply of literature and
  cultural activities (cf. RIAN 2006a, RIAN 2006b),
  material and ideological support of the Russian
  language and education of teachers (cf. Simonow
  2004)
• especially the financial engagement for the
  Russian language should be a factor to attract
  ethnic Russians in the near abroad to decide
  for Russian citizenship and to (re)-migrate to
  Russia
• Many Russians in Estonia still think that they
  are a part of this big Russian community and also
  a part of this big culture as well as the big
  Russian history, especially if they have Russian
  citizenship. I also think that this a part of our
  national problems here in Estonia. Of course, a
  lot of Russians have problems to speak and or to
  communicate in Estonian and use their mother
  tongue in everyday life () It is also quite
  difficult for older people to learn Estonian
  language. Many of them already live in Estonia
  their whole life and during the Soviet time they
  did not need to learn the Estonian language,
  because they always used Russian. I think that
  the language is the basic reason, why they decide
  for Russian citizenship. (Interview 27)

33
reasons that ethnic Russians in Estonia decide to
stay stateless

• self-exclusion of ethnic Russians not to become
  full members of Estonia
• personal deprivation ? social isolation of
  certain individuals or groups as a result of
  dicontent, seclusion, shortages and services
• negative experiences ? personal frustration
• difficult social situation
• desinterest in politics
• weak identification with Estonia
• disenchantment with politics
• critic about language test and citizenship
  procedures
• appropriation of state welfare support

34
"Minorities in EuropeSession 9 People
with Migration Background in Germany

• Denis Gruber
• Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
  University
• DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

35
German nationality law

• German citizenship is based primarily on the
  principle of Jus sanguinis
• one usually acquires German citizenship if a
  parent is a German citizen, irrespective of place
  of birth
• significant reform to the nationality law was
  passed by the Bundestag in 1999, and came into
  force on 1 January 2000
• new law makes it somewhat easier for foreigners
  resident in Germany on a long-term basis, and
  especially their German-born children to acquire
  German citizenship

36
German nationality law

• Birth in Germany
• Children born on or after 1 January 2000 to
  non-German parents acquire German citizenship at
  birth if at least one parent
• has a permanent residence permit (and has had
  this status for at least 3 years) and
• has been residing in Germany for at least 8
  years
• Such children will be required to apply
  successfully to retain German citizenship by the
  age of 23
• they do not hold any foreign citizenship

37
German nationality law

• Descent from a German parent
• People born to a parent who was a German citizen
  at the time of birth are usually German citizens
  does not matter whether they were born in Germany
  or not
• those born after January 1, 1975 are Germans if
  the mother or father is a German citizen
• Those born before January 1, 1975 could normally
  only claim German citizenship from the father and
  not the mother
• Exceptions included cases where the parents were
  unmarried (in which case German mothers could
  pass on citizenship) or where the German mother
  applied for the child to be registered as German
  on or before 31 December 1977
• those born outside Germany to a German parent who
  was also born outside Germany after 1999 will
  need to be registered as German citizens within
  12 months of birth
• Persons who are Germans on the basis of descent
  from a German parent do not have to apply to
  retain German citizenship by age 23

38
German nationality law

• Naturalisation as a German citizen
• naturalisation by those with permanent residence
  who have lived in Germany for 8 years
• additional requirements include an adequate
  command of the German language and an ability to
  be self-supporting without recourse to welfare
• Exceptions to the normal residence requirements
  include
• a spouse of a German citizen may be naturalised
  after 3 years residence in Germany. The marriage
  must have persisted for at least 2 years
• persons who have completed an integration course
  may have the residence requirement reduced to 7
  years
• refugees and stateless persons may be able to
  apply after 6 years residence
• former German citizens

39
German nationality law

• Victims of Nazi persecution
• people who lost German citizenship under the Nazi
  regime (mainly German Jews) may be eligible for
  naturalisation without requiring residence in
  Germany or renunciation of their existing
  citizenship
• Children and grandchildren of such persons may
  also be eligible for German citizenship
• German-born children
• children who were born in Germany in 1990 or
  later, and would have been German, were entitled
  to be naturalised as German citizens
• child was required to apply for retention of
  German citizenship by age 23 and normally show
  that no other foreign citizenship was held at
  that time

40
German nationality law

• Loss of German citizenship
• A German child adopted by foreign parents, where
  the child automatically acquires the nationality
  of the adoptive parents under the law of the
  adoptive parents' country
• German citizen who voluntarily serves in a
  foreign army (over and above compulsory military
  service) from 1 January 2000 may lose German
  citizenship unless permission is obtained from
  the German government
• Persons acquiring German citizenship on the basis
  of birth in Germany (without a German parent)
  lose German citizenship automatically at age 23
  if they have not successfully applied to retain
  German citizenship
• when a German citizen voluntarily acquires the
  citizenship of another country
• two exceptions
• When the German citizen acquires a nationality
  from within the European Union, Switzerland, or
  another country with which Germany has a
  corresponding treaty
• When permission to obtain a foreign citizenship
  has been applied for and granted in advance of
  foreign naturalisation

41
German nationality law

• Dual citizenship
• can only be held in limited circumstances
• where a child born to German parents acquires
  another citizenship at birth (e.g. based on place
  of birth, or descent from one parent)
• where a German citizen acquires a foreign
  nationality with the permission of the German
  government
• where a naturalized German citizen, or a child
  born to non-German parents in Germany, obtains
  permission to keep their foreign nationality

42

• 4. Historical Development of Migration (contd)
• Typs of ethnic minorities
• ethnic Germans
• ethnic German immigrants from Balkan and former
  SU
• labour migrants
• 2006 60 of foreigners are labour migrants
• 1980 75
• Refugees
• 490.000 recognized refugees
• 200.000 open applications for asylum
• Illegale Immigrants
• without permits
• 150,000 1,000,000

43

• 4 stages of German Migration History after WW II
• Stage of Recruiting (1955-73)
• Agreements with Mediteranian Countries
• foreign labour force instead of integration of
  women in labour market
• (as in GDR)
• stop of immigration from GDR
• Rotationsprinzip
• Stage of consolidation (1973-80)
• recruitment stop 1973 until 2000
• Familiennachzug
• first steps of integration Department for
  Integration
• In 1980s Asylum seeking
• defensive measures (1981-98)
• limitation of asylum seekers
• silent metamorphose of guest workers to
  immigrants
• stage of acceptance (1998-)
• 1.1.2000 liberal, open citizenship law
• Greencard for IT-Specialists
• Federal Department for Foreigners, Migrants and
  Refugees

44
a) Anwerbeverträge (Vgl. Treibel, 1999 56)
1955 Italien
1960 Spanien, Griechenland
1961 Türkei
1963 Marokko
1965 Tunesien
1968 Jugoslawien
Reports
45
Recruitment of Guest Workers

• starts in the 1950s til the mid 1970s
• In 1955 first recruitment contract
  Anwerbevertrag with Italy
• entrepreneurial, wage-political and job
  market-political considerations were decisive,
  although unemployment in 1955 was with 1.1
  million or 7 relatively high (cf. Treibel,
  199955)
• Besides, the employment of foreigners should only
  be a temporarily appearance ? political ideology
  of Guest worker" employment
• By the recruiting principle of rotation "young",
  "fresh" foreign workers should be available for
  the West-German economy
• The recruiting nation-states, enterprises and
  recruited workers assumed themselves that they
  remain certain time in the recruiting country to
  save money for independent existence or long-term
  acquisitions and sooner or later to return to
  their country of origin (ibid55)

46
Recruitment of Guest Workers

• There was a need for unqualified manpower for
  dirty and or badly paid work
• recruited workers were employed in those branches
  of the secondary sector which became more and
  more unattractive for local employees and female
  employees, thus, e.g., in the mining, in
  constructions, metal industry, textile industry
• furthermore, a need for the tertiary sector
  health service and gastronomy
• "foreign workers" were accommodated often in mass
  accommodations, camps and hostels
• Guest workers are therefore functional for the
  structural change of the German labour system,
  because they allowed the rise of the local
  manpower. (Treibel, 199956)

47
Recruitment of Guest Workers

• in 1966/67 rise of unemployment rate in Western
  Germany
• in 1973 stop of labour force recruitment and
  rotation principle
• A new phase of the West German foreigners policy
  consolidation
• Until the end of the 1970s numerous restriction
  and adaptation measures took place (1974
  reference regulation, 1975 Child benefit
  regulation immigration stop)
• aim which was pursued was not furthermore to
  replace old" foreign manpower by new ones and
  final remigration of labourforce in their
  homelands
• number of the foreign employees decreased 2.6
  million in 1973 (year of the highest level) to
  1.6 million in 1984

48
Recruitment of Guest Workers

• In the 1970s also the process of migration of
  foreign employees families has started (family
  reunification)
• Longer duration of stay, better living
  conditions and unrestricted possibilities of
  entry and leaving of the border, and this is
  especially important, the return possibility, led
  to the fact that foreign workers began to reunite
  their families. (Korte/Schmidt, 198317)
• Anwerbestopp of 1973 had caused the opposite
• When the foreigners had understood that from now
  on a return was correctable definitively, not
  more like during former years by a renewed
  recruitment, a part of them began to organize the
  reunification of the family. Especially strongly
  this was observed for Turks. While in Greece,
  Spain and Portugal consolidated their economies,
  the economic and social situation in Turkey
  became from year to year worse. (ibid. 19)
• Turks expected, stricter regulations for family
  reunification could follow, and, therefore,
  brought in their families to Germany

49
Migration from Turkey 1961-73

• German Turkish arrangement about the recruitment
  of manpower started on 30.10. 1961
• the Turkish military government intended by a
  limited emigration to relieve the labour market,
  to bring in urgently required foreign currency.
  and to promote the economic modernisation of
  Turkey by know-how of the certified repatriates
• from 1961 to 1973 German enterprises employed
  about 710,000 manpower from Turkey
• rotation principle which limited the work permit
  to two years was also in interest for the Turkish
  government to control the migration flows and to
  use certified manpower in the country after
  remigration
• under the pressure of the German economy the
  rotation principle was dropped already in 1962
  formally and was stopped in 1964

50
Migration from Turkey 1973-93

• The second military putsch in 1980 in Turkey was
  a new turning point after 1973
• from now on migrants from Turkey came as regime
  opponents to Germany
• in the 1980s the number of those immigrants was
  125,000 people
• another reason for the migration to Germany was
  the economic situation (e.g. rate of unemployment
  18 percent)
• Besides, a return to the native country was
  irreversible for Turkish migrants because of
  the non-membership in the EC there was no
  freedom of movement. Therefore, the time for
  returning to Turkey was shifted. Because also the
  medical care as well as the school education and
  professional training in Germany were better the
  stay duration rose on and on. (ibid. see 11)

51
Movements into and out of Germany by Germans and
foreign nationalsfrom 1991 to 2006
Sources Federal Statistical Office, together
with our own calculations
52
"Minorities in EuropeSession 10 Ethnic
Minorities in South-Eastern and South-Western
Europe

• Denis Gruber
• Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
  University
• DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

53
Migration in the EU

• present immigration situation among EU member
  states is highly heterogeneous
• European Statistical Office (Eurostat) data for
  2007 indicate the continuation of highly
  differing forms of immigration
• clear shift in the relationship between old and
  new immigration countries
• Thus countries on the southern border of the EU
  (Spain and Italy) are experiencing the highest
  level of immigration
• even the Czech Republic, a new member, has
  already overtaken the traditional receiving
  countries of central and northern Europe
• only the Baltic States, Bulgaria and Poland show
  negative immigration balances, although even the
  Netherlands recorded more emigration than
  immigration in 2007

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Migration in the EU

• percentage of foreign population in the EU member
  states extends from less than 1 of the total
  population (Slovakia) through to 39 (Luxemburg)
• In most countries, however, the foreign
  percentage is between 2 and 8 of the total
  population
• in all EU member states excluding Luxemburg,
  Belgium, Ireland and Cyprus, the majority of the
  foreign population is made up of so-called third
  country nationals, i.e. non-EU citizens

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Migration in the EU

• strong differences with regard to the legal
  categories on which the immigration flows are
  based
• labour migration dominates in countries with less
  regulated labour markets (e.g. the United
  Kingdom, Ireland, the Czech Republic and Denmark)
• in most other states family reunification
  represents the strongest immigration category
  (especially apparent in France and Sweden)
• Italy and Germany adopt a middle position, i.e.
  similar percentages are attributable to labour
  migration and family reunification, although in
  Germany other migration also makes up a large
  percentage ? Spätaussiedler (ethnic German
  immigrants from the countries of the former
  Soviet Union)
• in Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands, Turkish
  citizens make up the biggest group of foreigners
• by contrast, citizens of former colonies are
  numerous in Portugal (Cape Verde, Brazil and
  Angola) and in Spain (Ecuador and Morocco).

58
Migration in the EU

• majority of foreigners in Greece are from Albania
• majority in Slovenia from other parts of the
  former Yugoslavia
• citizens from the former Soviet Union are most
  significant among the foreign populations of
  Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
• in most of the member states immigration is
  dominated by the low skilled
• only the United Kingdom records almost equal
  percentages of highly and low-skilled migrants
• in Italy, Austria and Germany, by contrast,
  immigration is dominated now as ever by the lower
  skilled

59
Spain

• Languages Spanish (Castilian), Catalan
  (regional), Basque (regional), Galician
  (regional)
• Population (2008) 46,063,511 (INE, Padrón
  municipal1)
• Foreign population (2008) 5,220,577 Persons
  (11.3 ) (INE, Padrón municipal)
• Percentage of foreign employees amongst gainfully
  employed 14.4 (1/2008)
• Unemployment rate 9.6 (1/2008), 8.6 (4/2007),
  8.3 (4/2006) (INE, Encuesta de Población Activa)
• Unemployment rate of foreign population 14.6
  (1/2008), 12.4 (4/2007), 12.0 (4/2006) (INE,
  Encuesta de Población Activa)
• Religions 35 mln. Catholics (77 ), approx. 1.2
  mln. Protestants and free churches (2.7 ),
  approx. 1.1 mln. Muslims (2.4 ), approx. 48 000
  Jews (0.1 ) (estimations, International
  Religious Freedom Report 2007)

60
Spain

• From emigration country to immigration country
• history of Spanish migration over the last five
  hundred years has mostly been a tale of
  emigration
• Traditionally, waves of emigrants have headed to
  Latin America, with flows peaking at the
  beginning of the 20th century
• from 1905-1913, 1.5 million Spaniards left the
  country for Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and
  Venezuela
• following interruptions stemming from the World
  Wars and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
• between 1946 and 1958, about 624,000 people left
  the country for overseas
• approximately 300,000 people joined this final
  wave of emigration to Latin America between 1958
  and 1975

61
Spain

• Northern and Western European countries began to
  recruit foreign workers
• Spain became a source country of the guest
  workers needed by France, Germany and, later,
  Switzerland
• economic and energy crises of 1973/74 led to the
  end of foreign labour recruitment by those
  countries, resulting in a drastic reduction in
  emigration from Spain
• from 1960 to 1975, approximately two million
  Spaniards migrated to other European countries
• from the mid-1970s to 1990, approximately 15,000
  people per year went to other European countries
  through Spains controlled emigration programme
• majority of these migrants went to Switzerland
  and, to a lesser extent, France for a period of
  less than a year
• number of people sent abroad through the
  controlled emigration programme declined
  drastically following Spains entry into the EU
  (1986)

62
Spain

• Spains foreign population has been increasing
  slowly since the middle of the 1980s
• In the beginning, Northern and Western Europeans,
  in search of a (retirement) residence in a warmer
  climate, accounted for a considerable proportion
  of incoming migrants
• overall migration trends have changed, with
  increased levels of south-north migration from
  the Third World and, after the fall of the Iron
  Curtain, east-west migration from Central and
  Eastern Europe
• these new trends, combined with a period of
  prolonged economic growth in Spain, have led to a
  rise in the number of migrant workers entering
  Spain

63
Spain

• In 1975, there were approximately 200,000
  foreigners living in Spain
• number increased fivefold in the following 25
  years to reach 1 million by the end of the
  century
• in 2007, around 3.98 million foreigners were in
  possession of a residence permit
• foreigners represented 11.3 of the total
  population of 46.1 million at the beginning of
  2008
• high level of immigration has been responsible
  for Spains considerable population growth
• countrys population grew by 2.1 from 2004 to
  2005, 1.4 from 2005 to 2006, 1.1 from 2006 to
  2007 and 1.9 from 2007 to 2008

64
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe

• participation of minorities in public life is
  essential
• to ensure that their particular concerns are
  taken into account
• to enable them to influence the general direction
  of development of society
• participation in social and economic life enables
  them to take care of their needs through their
  own active contribution
• investigation in South East European (SEE)
  countries shows
• a wide range of mechanisms in connection with
  minority participation and representation,
  adjusted to the relevant situations in practice
• mechanisms vary from federalism, through
  territorial autonomy, proportional electoral
  systems and guaranteed minority seats in
  parliament and on advisory boards to various
  committees and commissions

65
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe

• suggestions
• if minorities are effectively represented in
  public affairs, discriminatory standards and
  practices can be more readily eliminated
• effective participation of minorities in various
  areas of public life is essential for the
  development of a truly democratic, cohesive,
  inclusive and just society
• effective participation of minorities in
  decision-making processes, is a fundamental
  precondition for the full and equal enjoyment of
  the human rights of persons belonging to
  minorities

66
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe

• what is the state in SEE-countries?
• both differences and common ground with regard to
  political parties representing minorities
• every country has political parties representing
  minorities and for them, ethnopolitical
  mobilization is the main agent of organization
• such parties provide for the political
  participation of minority groups, but tend to be
  mono-ethnic, attracting support only from the one
  ethnic group they represent
• such parties are a stronger factor in local
  politics than in national politics, due to their
  voter base
• influence exerted by parties representing
  minorities on the policy process is dependent on
  the importance of the party in the country which
  vary across SEE

67
Minorities and politicalparticipation in
South-East Europe

• Romania
• Ethnic minorities comprise more than 10 of
  Romanias total population
• Minorities in Romania can be divided into three
  categories, mainly taking the size of the
  minority group into consideration
• Hungarians, the most numerous and politically
  well organized
• Roma, the second most numerous with several
  political organizations to represent them
• 18 other minority groups with at least one
  political organization per group
• Romanian Constitution guarantees one seat in the
  lower house of Parliament for each minority group
  whose candidates cannot gather enough votes to
  enter the Parliament in accordance with the
  electoral system (Article 59)
• Through this clause, in the 2004-2008 Parliament
  18 minority groups had representatives in
  Parliament
• With exception of the Democratic Alliance of the
  Hungarians in Romania (DAHR), which was able to
  gain enough votes to win seats in Parliament, the
  other organizations representing minorities have
  benefited from this provision

68
"Minorities in EuropeSession 11 and 12
The Informal Sector, Minorities and Ethnic
Minority EntrepreneurshipTheoretical Approaches,
Empirical Findings in Russia and Europe

• Denis Gruber
• Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
  University
• DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

69
Informal Sector definition

• term "informal sector" has been used to describe
  a wide spectrum of activities, which do not
  necessarily have much in common
• tax evasion, corruption, money laundering,
  organised crime, bribery, subsistence farming,
  barter etc.
• concept was introduced by the ILO (International
  Labor Office) in a study on Kenya in 1972
• often the term is used to refer to economic
  activities that take place outside a given
  recognized and legal institutional framework
• activities in the IS generate an income that is
  both not taxed and not controlled by the legal
  institutions which regulate the legal sphere
• following Bernabè (2002) it refers to small
  either unregistered and unregulated activities,
  or activities concealed in order to avoid tax
  payment, or even activities producing goods and
  services forbidden by the law

70
Describing the Informal Sector

• Differences to the Formal Sector
• smaller scale of enterprises and production units
  (varying from individuals, single households to
  enterprises with a few employees)
• lower complexity of the production process
• use of high technology and expensive energy to a
  much lesser extent
• less division of labour
• lower capital-intensity
• wages that are not based on the working time but
  on quantities (number of produced pieces)
• high fluctuation of employees
• production that is located in the housing/ living
  space or on the streets
• high degree of Insecurity

71
Describing the Informal Sector

• ILO World Employment Programme Report puts the
  following characteristics
• ease to entry
• reliance on indigenious ressources
• family ownership of enterprises
• small scale of operation
• skills aquired outside the formal school system
  and unregulated and competetive markets.
• but following Kumar and Jena the above mentioned
  characteristics lack validity, because one has to
  focus on rural and urban as well as regional and
  international differences

72
Linkages between the Formal and Informal Sector

• earlier studies show a clear distinction between
  the informal and the formal sector
• recent studies emphasize that both sectors cannot
  be dealt with as two separate and independent
  spheres
• Indeed there exists a number of linkages and
  interdependencies
• Following Singh (1996) one can find upward
  vertical linkages and downward vertical
  linkages
• Downward vertical linkages, e.g. sale of goods
  and services from the formal to the informal
  sector
• upward vertical linkages, e.g. sale of goods
  and services from the informal to the formal
  sector

73
Linkages between the Formal and Informal Sector

• example subcontracting requires cheap and
  flexible employees, i.e. workers who are not
  bound to stable working contracts and social
  insurances, it leads to price cuts of the
  informal produced goods and the low status of the
  respective employees (Singh 199650)
• the fact that many informal enterprises
  nevertheless work on a sub-contract-basis for the
  formal economy indicates that the informal sector
  is to a large extent dependent on external
  orders

74
The Informal Sector in Russia

• worsening of formal employment conditions,
  reduction in real wages and quasi absence of
  social security
• during the first decade of transformation a lot
  of households with working age member fall into
  poverty
• "new phenomenon of "working poor" has become
  wide-spread
• facing negative economic conditions, Russian
  population has to change its behaviour on the
  labour market selfemployment, moonlighting and
  informal activities have become a reality for
  many individuals (Kim, 2002)
• since 1998 the number of persons working in the
  IS increased

c.f. Beuran/Kalugina 2006 Social exclusion and
the informal sector the case of Russia
75
The structure of informal employment in Russia

• among all types of informal employment the major
  input over 50 comes from the employees of
  informal sector
• self-employed, multiple job holders and
  incompliant formal sector employees account
  respectively for 21, 13, and 15

76
The structure of informal employment in Russia

• age structure of informal employment by gender
  shows that the highest informal employment rates
  are observed among younger age groups
• c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
  Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
  Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
  ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
  Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
  Edinburgh, p.7

77
The structure of informal employment in Russia

• Informal employment on average provides lower
  wage rates as well as lower monthly wage amounts

c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, p.8
78
The structure of informal employment in Russia

• the prevalence of formal employment 90 is
  observed in the organizations owned by different
  levels of government
• 50 of the employees of private sector are
  employed on informal basis
• 10 of municipal and 8 of federal and regional
  employees work informally

c.f. Merkuryeva, Irina (2006) Informal
Employment in Russia Combining Disadvantages and
Opportunities, Discussion Paper, CENTRE FOR
ECONOMIC REFORM AND TRANSFORMATION, School of
Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, p.9
79
Infomal Sector does not automatically mean
Informal Practices!!!
80
Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship

• Denis Gruber
• Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State
  University
• DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

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Who is an entrepreneur?

• Gartner (1989) ()the entrepreneur is the one
  who creates an organization.
• organizations are created all the time by people
  who are not entrepreneurs (e.g., political
  parties, associations, and social groups)
• Gartner criticizes Carland et. al.s (1984, 358)
  definition of entrepreneur An entrepreneur is
  an individual who establishes and manages a
  business for the principal purposes of profit and
  growth
• Hebért Link (1989, 47) conclude that ()
  entrepreneur is a person, not a team, committee
  or organization
• Pickle Abrahamson (1990, 5,9) introduce a
  compact definition of an entrepreneur An
  entrepreneur is one who organizes and manages a
  business undertaking, assuming the risk, for the
  sake of profit. The entrepreneur evaluates
  perceived opportunities and strives to make the
  decisions that will enable the firm to realize
  sustained growth.
• ? this definition does not include any process
  characteristics thought to be important at least
  in high growth ventures

88
Definitions of Entrepreneurship

• four main concepts concepts
• entrepreneur is an individual actor in the market
• focusing on the entrepreneurial spirit to analyze
  the behavior in the market
• entrepreneurship is put into the centre and
  attempts to combine the actor (entrepreneur) and
  the behavior in the market
• emphasizing the entrepreneurial process and
  combining time dimension and behavior in the
  market
• 1Nevertheless, no commonly accepted definitions
  of the entrepreneur, entrepreneurial (behavior)
  or entrepreneurship exist
• one of the best definitions of entrepreneurship
  is found in Ronstadt (1984, 28)
• Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of
  creating incremental wealth. The wealth is
  created by individuals who assume the major risks
  in terms of equity, time and/or career commitment
  or provide value for some product or service. The
  product or service may or may not be new or
  unique but value must somehow be infused by the
  entrepreneur by receiving and allocating the
  necessary skills and resources.

89
Ethnic entrepreneurship studies

• split into two types of discussion (Greene et
  al., 2003)
• apart of an underserved minority population that
  needs business assistance to guide venture small
  businesses and development
• models of entrepreneurial approaches by certain
  ethnic groups are not lauded but adopted for
  trial by other types of communities, whether
  those communities be natural or artificially
  created
• The concern over the definition of ethnic
  entrepreneurship has been increasing over the
  past few years
• Minority entrepreneurs are business owners who do
  not belong to the majority population
• A minority may not (necessarily) be an immigrant
  and may not share a strong sense of group
  solidarity with an ethnic group, in terms of a
  shared history, religion, or language (Basu, 2002

90
Georg Simmel as starting point?

• Simmels conception of the stranger has opened
  minority discussions
• Simmel was using the term stranger to describe
  a person arriving in a new geographical location
  and becoming classified as a minority by dint of
  race, religion, or ethnicity
• According to Butler and Greene (1997), these
  early scholars developed ideas based on
• the stranger as trader
• the social structure of society
• the value systems produced
• religious tenets
• These explained fundamental issues led to the
  emergence of a theoretical framework for ethnic
  entrepreneurship

91
Approaches to Ethnic Entrepreneurship

• Enclave Theory
• Middleman Theory
• Theories of Immigration
• Ethnic-controlled economy

92
Enclave Theory

• is concerned with immigrants, entrepreneurship
  and labor market issues (Nee Nee, 1986)
• adherents maintain that ethnic enclaves, as well
  as being economically and culturally linked, have
  historically been geographically based (cf.
  Menzies, 2003)
• an ethnic economy that is clustered around a
  territorial core
• Cultural identity is key
• Businesses and customers proactively and
  significantly recapture spending along ethnic
  lines and at all levels
• Examples Coreatown, Chinatown, Bombaytown

93
Middleman Theories

• cf. Bonacich, 1973 Bonacich Modell, 1980
  Waldinger et al., 1990
• middlemen are between elites and the broad mass
  on societal level
• considered as mediators between producers and
  consumers on economic level
• they do business and are less committed
  themselves to the sphere of production
• Middlemen theories deal with emerge and
  formation of these minorities
• formations are a reaction to the animosity of the
  native population ? hence, group pride and mutual
  help are developing which prevent that group
  members will be economically isolated
• other views middlemen minorities claimed as a
  kind of lock-up persons between elites and the
  broad mass ? for economic survival the group
  members turn to self-employment and business
  creation activities that generally have low
  barriers to entry and a high degree of liquidity
  (Greene et al., 2003)
• in Middleman Theories the focus is on trading
  peoples residing in diasporas
• define ethnic entrepreneurship as a set of
  connections and regular patterns of interaction
  among people sharing common national background
  or migration experiences (Waldinger et al., 1990)

94
Theories of Immigration

• focus on the elements and models of the business
  creation process for immigrant entrepreneurs
  (Menzies, 2003
• term diaspora is often used
• Diaspora does not only refer to its Greek origin
  referring to migration and colonization but
  also to the voluntary residence without any
  colonialist motives within a country if there is
  a strong cohesion by collective identities
• Robin Cohen calls different features for
  diasporas
• scattering from a home country to at least two
  other regions
• scattering occurs often involuntary and
  traumatically but, however, can also occur
  voluntary
• members of diaspora share collective memory and
  myth about their home country and idealize this
  and his history
• it results in a return movement
• strong self-group consciousness is developing
• relationships to native population are
  pr