SENSOR NETWORKS

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REFERENCES

• I.F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, and C. Blazquez,
• "NanoNetworking A New Communication Paradigm",
• Computer Networks Journal, (Elsevier), June 2008.
• F. Akyildiz and J. M. Jornet,
• Electromagnetic Wireless Nanosensor Networks,
• Nano Communication Networks Journal (Elsevier),
  May 2010.

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Nanotechnology

• Study of the control of matter on an atomic
• and molecular scale.
• Enabling the miniaturization and fabrication
• of devices in a scale ranging from one to a
• few hundreds nanometers

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Nanotechnology
Diameter of human hair 20-200 µm
Typical cell diameter 10 µm
DNA double-helix diameter 2 nm
Carbon atoms bond length 0.145 nm
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NANOMATERIALS GRAPHENE, NANOTUBES NANORIBBONS

• Graphene A one-atom-thick planar sheet of bonded
  carbon
• atoms in a honeycomb crystal lattice.
• Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) A folded nano-ribbon
  (1991)
• Graphene Nanoribbons (GNR) A thin strip of
  graphene (2004)

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NANOMATERIALS GRAPHENE, NANOTUBES NANORIBBONS

• Ten graphene nanoribbons between a pair of
  electrodes

A graphene material sample used for testing its
properties.
Courtesy of the Exploratory Nanoelectronics and
Technology (ENT) Group, School of ECE, GaTech.
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Nanomaterials Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes
Nanoribbons

• Their electrical and optical properties, analyzed
  in light of Quantum
• Mechanics, offer
• High current capacity High thermal
  conductivity ? Energy efficiency
• Extremely high mechanical strength ? Robustness
• Very high sensitivity (all atoms are exposed) ?
  Sensing capabilities
• New opportunities for device-technology
• Nano-batteries, nano-memories, nano-processors,
• nano-antennas, nano-tx, nano-rx.

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Design of Nano-Devices
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Design of Nano-Machines

• Bottom-Up

• Top-Down

• Bio-Hybrid

• Main Challenge
• Controlling the assembly
• process
• Obtaining complex
• structures.
• Examples
• Molecular self-assembly
• Molecular recognition.

• Main Challenge Achieve molecular
• and atomic precision
• Examples
• Photolithography,
• Micro-contact
• printing.

• Main Challenge
• Isolation of
• biological
• nano-machines
• Hybridization.
• Examples
• Bacteria transport

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DESIGN OF NANO-MACHINES
Nano-Material based Nano-Machines
Biologically Inspired Nano-Machines
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POWER UNIT (NANO-BATTERIES)

• Zinc Oxide Nano Wires
• Improved power density, lifetime, and
  charge/discharge rates.

High density nano-wires used for nano-batteries.
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NANO-PROCESSOR
45 nm transistor technology is already on the
market 32 nm technology is around the
corner Worlds smallest transistor (2008)
is based on a thin strip of graphene just 1
atom x 10 atoms (1 nm transistor)
World smallest transistor Courtesy of Mesoscopic
Physics group at the University of Manchester.
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Graphene EM Nano-Transmitter
Information

• Can we develop an EM transmitter in the
  nano-scale in
• light of molecular electronics?
• Yes, we can do that consistently with physics
  laws!
• It may take us some time !!

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Graphene EM Nano-Receiver
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NANO-MEMORY

• Graphene-based micro-scale memories offer high
• density storage systems (e.g., 64 Gbits/cm2)

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NANO-ANTENNAS

• Graphene can also be used to build antennas
• Using a single Carbon Nanotube (or a set of
  them)
• a nano-dipole
• Using a single Graphene Nanoribbon a nano-patch
• Atom-precise antennas

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A GRAPHENE-BASED NANO-ANTENNAJ. M. Jornet and
I.F. Akyildiz, Graphene-based Nano-antennas for
Electromagnetic Nanocommunications in the
Terahertz Band, in Proc. of 4th European
Conference on Antennas and Propagation, (EUCAP),
April 2010.

• Propose, model and analyze a novel nano-antenna
• design based on a metallic multi-conducting
  band
• Graphene Nanoribbon (GNR) and resembling a
  nano-
• patch antenna.

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OUR CONTRIBUTIONS

• Developed a quantum mechanical framework to model
  the
• transmission line properties of
  GrapheneNanoRibbons
• Contact resistance
• Quantum capacitance
• Kinetic inductance
• as a function of different design variables
• Ribbon dimensions
• System temperature
• System energy

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WHAT DID WE LEARN?

• Graphene can be used to manufacture
  nano-antennas with atomic precision.
• Using nano-antennas, EM waves will be radiated
• in the Terahertz Band (0.1-10 THz)
• New opportunities for electromagnetic nano-scale
  communications
• New opportunities for Terahertz technology.

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DESIGN OF NANO-MACHINES
Nano-Material based Nano- Machines
Biologically Inspired Nano-Machines
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINES
I.F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, and C. Blazquez,
"NanoNetworking A New Communication
Paradigm", Computer Networks Journal,
(Elsevier), June 2008.

• A CELL
• The most sophisticated existing
• nano-machine
• Efficient energy consumption
• Harvesting Mechanisms
• Multi-task computing DNA processing
• Multi-sensing Actuation

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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINES POWER
CELLULAR RESPIRATION Cell gains useful
energy. By combining

• Glucose
• Amino Acids
• Fatty Acids
• Oxygen

The cell obtains energy which is used to
synthesize Adenosine TriPhosphate or ATP
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HOW ABOUT AN ATP BATTERY?
Mitochondria a membrane enclosed organelle
found in most eukaryotic cells. They generate
most of the ATP per cell. Only present
in eukaryotic cells.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINEPROCESSOR/MEMORY

• Cells pose a good example of multi-tasking
  processors.
• In each cell, the instructions are contained in
  the
• genes, which are portions of DNA.
• Enzymes are bio-molecules that catalyze (trigger)
  the
• expression of a gene -gt DNA processors.

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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINEPROCESSOR/MEMORY

• DNA A nucleic acid that contains the
  instructions used in the
• development and functioning of all known
  living organisms.

The manipulation of DNA or Hybridization will
allow us to obtain user-defined biological
Nano-machines
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINETRANSCEIVER EMISSION
PROCESS
A cell (the transmitter) synthesizes and
releases in the medium molecules (proteins),
as a result of the expression of a DNA sequence.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINERECEIVER RECEPTION
PROCESS
Another cell (the receiver) captures those
molecules and creates an internal chemical
pathway that triggers the expression of other DNA
sequences.
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINERECEIVER RECEPTION
PROCESS
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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINERECEIVER RECEPTION
PROCESS

• Receptor-ligand binding
• A ligand is a substance that is able to
• bind to and form a complex with a
• bio-molecule to serve a biological
• purpose
• A receptor is a protein molecule,
• embedded in either the plasma membrane or the
  cytoplasm of a cell.

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BIOLOGICAL NANO-MACHINEPHEROMONE ANTENNA
Ll. Parcerisa and I.F. Akyildiz, "Molecular
Communication Options for Long Range
Nanonetworks, Computer Networks (Elsevier)
Journal, Fall 2009.
Pheromones are bigger molecules externally
released by plants, insects and other animals
that trigger specific behaviors among the
receptor members of the same species.
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NANO-COMMUNICATION PARADIGMS
EM Based Communication for Nano-Material Based
Nano-Networks
Molecular Communication for Biological
Nano-Networks
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TERAHERTZ BAND FOR EM BASED NANO-NETWORKS
J.M. Jornet and I.F. Akyildiz, Channel Capacity
of Electromagnetic Nanonetworks in the Terahertz
Band, in Proc. of IEEE ICC, Cape Town, South
Africa, 2010.

• Developed an Attenuation and Noise model for EM
  communications in the Terahertz Band (0.1-10 THz)
  
• Uniqueness of the Terahertz band
• Terahertz channel is seriously affected by
  the
• presence of different molecules present in
  the medium
• High molecular absorption attenuates the
  travelling
• wave and introduces noise into the channel

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PATH-LOSS

• Determined by
• Spreading Loss accounts for the attenuation due
  to the expansion of the wave as it propagates
  through the medium.
• Absorption Loss accounts for the attenuation due
  to molecular absorption.

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SPREADING LOSS

• Depends on the frequency of the wave f and the
  total path length d

A dominant term in the total path loss
computation !!
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ABSORPTION LOSS

• Molecular composition of the channel

• where t is the transmittance of the medium and
  accounts
• for the molecular absorption of the
  channel
• i.e., measures the amount of radiation that is
  able to pass through the medium.

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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• Using Beer-Lambert law we obtain the
  transmittance
• of the medium t as

where f is the wave frequency d is
the path length P0 is the output
power Pi isthe input power, and
k is the medium absorption coefficient.
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• Medium absorption coefficient k depends on the
  particular
• mixture of particles found along the channel

where f is frequency ki,g is absorption
coefficient of each isotopologue i of a gas
g. e.g., Air in an office is mainly composed of
Nitrogen (78.1)
Oxygen (20.9) and Water vapor
(0.1-10).
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• Absorption coefficient of a specific isotopologue
  i of a gas g

where
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• For a given gas mixture, the volumetric water
  density can be obtained from the ideal gas laws
  equation as

where
For example, with a 10 of water vapor, one
molecule of H2O is found every 1 µm3
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• Absorption cross section can be further
  decomposed in
• the absorption line intensity Si,g and
• the absorption line shape Gi,g

Si,g depends on the type of molecules. We
obtain this value from the HITRAN database.
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MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

• The continuum absorption is obtained from Van
  Vleck-Weisskopf
• assymetric line shape

where h is the Planck Constant c is the
speed of light in vacuum kb ithe
Boltzmann constant and aLi,g is the
broadening coefficient.
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NOISE

• The total noise at the receiver will be mainly
  contributed by
• Electronic noise predictably low due to large
  Mean Free Path of electrons in graphene, more
  accurate models are needed.
• Molecular noise which also appears due to
  molecular absorption.

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WHAT DID WE LEARN?

• Terahertz communication channel has a strong
  dependence on
• the transmission distance
• medium molecular composition.
• Main factor affecting the performance of the
  Terahertz band
• ? the presence of water vapor molecules.
• Terahertz frequency band offers incredibly huge
  bandwidths for short range (less than 1m)
  deployed nano-networks

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Total Path Loss
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NUMERICAL RESULTS
MOLECULAR NOISE TEMPERATURE IN THE TERAHERTZ BAND
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TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS

• Some novel properties
• Extreme large bandwidths
• The noise in the terahertz band is neither
  additive nor white.

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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS

• Accurate channel models accounting for molecular
  absorption, molecular noise, multi-path, etc.
• New communication techniques
• (e.g., sub-picosecond or femtosecond long
  pulses, multicarrier modulations, MIMO boosted
  with large integration of nano-antennas?).
• This band is still not regulated, we can
  contribute to the development of future
  communication standards in THz band.

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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS

• New information encoding techniques, definition
  of new codes tailored to the channel
  characteristics (time varying channel, non white
  noise).
• Frame and packet size, synchronization issues,
  transceivers architectures, etc. need to be
  defined.
• Network topology issues, network connectivity,
  network capacity, how are they affected by the
  channel?

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RESEARCH CHALLENGES IN TERAHERTZ COMMUNICATIONS

• New MACs exploiting the properties of the THz
  band
• (e.g., collisions among femtosecond pulses may
  be negligible,
• OFDMA may be useful in such big bandwidths).
• New routing protocols and transport layer
  solutions for reliable transport in terahertz
  networks. Cross-layer solutions?
• What are the applications enabled by this huge
  bandwidth?

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COMMUNICATION PARADIGMS FORNANO-NETWORKS
EM Based Communication for Nano-Machines
Molecular Communication for Nano-Machines
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A Possible Solution Molecular Communication

• Defined as the transmission and reception of
• information encoded in molecules

A new and interdisciplinary field that spans
nano, ece, cs, bio, physics, chemistry, medicine,
and information technologies
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Nanonetworks vs Traditional Communication Networks
Traditional Communication
Molecular Communication
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Molecular Communication
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Short-Range Communication
Molecular Motors (Wired)
Calcium Ions (Wireless)
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors

• What is a Molecular Motor?
• Is a protein or a protein complex that transforms
  chemical energy into mechanical work at a
  molecular scale
• Has the ability to move molecules

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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors

• Molecular Motors
• Found in eukaryotic cells in living organisms
• Molecular motors travel or move along
  molecular
• rails called microtubules
• Movement created by molecular motors can be
• used to transport information molecules

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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors

• Encapsulation of information
• Information can be encapsulated in vesicles.
• A vesicle is a fluid or an air-filled cavity
  that can store or digest cell products.

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Short-Range Communication using Molecular Motors
Encoding
Transmission
Propagation
Reception
Decoding

• Select the right molecules that represent
  information

Attach the information packet to the molecular
motor
Information molecules are detached from
molecular motors
Receiver nano-machine invokes the desired
reaction according to the received information
Microtubules (molecular rails) restrict the
movement to themselves
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
Two Different Deployment Scenarios
Direct Access
Indirect Access
Exchange of information among cells located next
to each other
Cells deployed separately without any
physical contact
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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling

• Direct Access Ca2signal travel through gates

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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling

• Gap Junctions Biological gates that allow
  different molecules and
• ions to pass
  freely between cells (membranes).

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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling

• Indirect Access
• Transmitter nano-machine release information
  molecules to the the medium.
• Generate a Ca2 at the receiver nano-machine.

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Short-Range Communication using Calcium Signaling
Encoding
Transmission
Signal Propagation
Reception
Decoding

• Information is
• encoded in Ca2

Involves the signaling initiation
Propagation of the Ca2 waves
Receiver perceives the Ca2 concentration
Receiver nano-machine reacts to the Ca2
concentration
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Problems of Short Range Molecular Communication

• Molecular Motors
• Molecular motors velocity is 500 nm/s
• They detach of the microtubule and diffuse away
  when they
• have moved distances in the order of 1 µm
• Development of a proper network infrastructure
  of microtubules
• is required
• Molecular motors move in a unidirectional way
  through the
• microtubules
• ? very long communication delays !

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Problems of Short Range Molecular Communication

• Calcium Signaling
• Very high delays for longer (more than few µm)
  distances

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Medium Range Molecular CommunicationM. Gregori
and I. F. Akyildiz, "A New NanoNetwork
Architecture using Flagellated Bacteria and
Catalytic Nanomotors," IEEE JSAC (Journal of
Selected Areas in Communications), May 2010

• Flagellated
• bacteria
• Catalytic
• nanomotors

• Pheromones
• Pollen Spores

• Ion Signaling
• Molecular Motors

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Medium Range Molecular CommunicationFlagellated
Bacteria

• Bacteria are microorganisms composed only by one
  prokaryotic cell.
• Flagellum allows them to convert chemical energy
  into motion.
• Escherichia coli (E. coli) has between 4 and 10
  flagella, which are moved by rotary motors,
  fuelled by chemical compounds.
• E. coli bacteria is approximately 2 µm long and 1
  µm in diameter.

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Medium-Range Communication using Flagellated
Bacteria

• Information is expressed as a set of DNA base
  pairs, the DNA packet, which is inserted in a
  plasmid.

Encoding
Transmission
Propagation
Reception
Decoding

• DNA packet is
• introduced inside the
• bacterias cytoplasm,
• using
• Plasmids
• Bacteriophages
• Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs)

• Bacteria sense gradients of
• attractant particles.
• They move towards the direction and
• finds more attractants (chemotaxis).
• The receiver releases attractants so the bacteria
  can reach it.

• DNA packet is extracted from the plasmid using
• Restriction endonucleases enzymes

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Why Bacterial Communication?

• Spans medium range to long range (µm to tens of
  cm)
• No need of infrastructure
• Better than molecular motors
• Reliable transfer of huge amount of information
• Up to 100Kbyte per bacteria (400K base pairs)
  using a plasmid.

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Objective

• Analyze the communications aspects of flagellated
  bacteria-based information transport
• Delay and range
• And relation with other parameters (receiver
  size, bacteria speed, bacteria run period)
• How? Simulation!!
• Others routing, coding

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Why Simulation?

• Bacteria perform BIASED RANDOM WALK
• Moves more or less randomly, but tends to climb
  concentration gradients of attractants
• We simulate a bacteria that
• Starts swimming in a random direction
• Starts at given distance from spherical receptor
  of certain size
• Delay ? time to reach the receptor
• Range ? maximum distance

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Simulation Model

• acterium RUNS or TUMBLES

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Medium Range Molecular CommunicationCatalytic
Nanomotors (Nanorods)

• Au/Ni/Au/Ni/Pt striped nanorods are catalytic
  nanomotors,
• 1.3 µm long and 400 nm on diameter,
• can be externally directed by applying magnetic
  fields.

• We propose to use them as a carrier to transport
  the DNA
• information among nano-sensors

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Medium-Range Communication using Catalytic
Nanomotors

• Information is expressed as a set of DNA base
  pairs, the DNA packet, which is inserted in a
  plasmid.

Encoding
Transmission
Propagation
Reception
Decoding

• Magnetic Fields guide the nanorod to the receiver

• DNA packet is extracted from the plasmid using
• Restriction endonucleases enzymes

• Nanorods are introduced in a solution of AEDP
• AEDP binds with the Nickel segments
• DNA packets (plasmids) are attached to nanorods
• CaCl2 solution is used in order to compress and
  immobilize the plasmid

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Long-Range Communication using PheromonesL.
Parcerisa and I.F. Akyildiz, "Molecular
Communication Options for Long Range
Nanonetworks, Computer Networks (Elsevier)
Journal, Fall 2009

• Features

Communication Range
mm - m
Medium
Wet and dry
Carrier

• Pheromones
• Pollen Spores

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Long-Range Communication using Pheromones

• Communication Features

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Long-Range Communication using Pheromones
Encoding
Transmission
Signal Propagation
Reception
Decoding
Pheremones are diffused into the medium

• Selection of the specific pheromones to
  transmit the information and produce the reaction
  at the intended receiver

Releasing the pheromones through liquids or
gases
Pheremones bind to the Receptor
Interpretation of the information (Different
pheremones trigger different reactions)
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Research Challenges in Nano-Networks
Development of nano-machines, testbeds and
simulation tools
Information Theoretical Approach
Architectures and Communication Protocols
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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODELM. Pierobon, and
I. F. Akyildiz, A Physical Channel Model for
Molecular Communication in Nanonetworks, IEEE
JSAC (Journal of Selected Areas in
Communications), May 2010.

• Molecule Diffusion Communication Exchange of
  information
• encoded in the concentration variations of
  molecules.

RN
TN
Diffusion process
Reception process
Emission process
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END-TO-END
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OBJECTIVE OF THE PHYSICAL CHANNEL MODEL

• Derivation of DELAY and ATTENUATION
• as functions of the frequency and the
  transmission range
• Non-linear attenuation with respect to the
  frequency
• Distortion due to delay dispersion

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MODELING CHALLENGES FOR THE PHYSICAL CHANNEL

• Transmitter
• How chemical reactions allow the modulation of
  molecule concentrations as
• transmission signals ?
• Propagation
• How the particle diffusion controls the
  propagation of modulated
• concentrations ?
• Receiver
• How chemical reactions allow to sense the
  modulated molecule concentrations
• from the environment and translate them into
  received signals ?

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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL

• Transmitter Model
• Design of a chemical actuator scheme (chemical
• transmitting antenna)
• Analytical modeling of the chemical reactions
  involved in
• an actuator
• Signal to be transmitted ? Modulated
  concentration

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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL

• Propagation Model
• Solution of the diffusion physical laws (FICKs
  First and Second
• Laws (1855)) in the presence of an external
  concentration
• modulation
• Modulated concentration ? Space-time
  concentration evolution

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MOLECULE DIFFUSION CHANNEL MODEL

• Receiver Model
• Design of a chemical receptor scheme (chemical
  receiving antenna)
• Analytical modeling of the chemical reactions
  involved in a
• receptor
• Propagated modulated concentration ? Received
  signal

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FURTHER RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR CHANNEL MODEL

• Noise
• Capacity
• Throughput

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FINAL GOAL OF MOLECULAR COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

• Physical Channel Model
• How information is transmitted, propagated and
  received
• when a molecular carrier is used
• Noise Representation
• How can be physically and mathematically
  expressed the
• noise affected information transmitted through
  molecular
• communication
• Information Encoding/Decoding
• Concentration
• Chemical structure
• Encapsulation

Molecular Channel Capacity