Study Guide for AHSGE Biology Edition

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Study Guide for AHSGE Biology Edition

• By Desaree Jackson

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Standard 1

• Select appropriate laboratory glassware,
  balances, time measuring equipment, and optical
  instruments to conduct an experiment.

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Laboratory Equipment

• Identify and State the Uses of Common Lab Tools

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Lab Tool BALANCE

• TYPES
• 1.) Triple Beam Balance
• 2.) Equal Arm Balance
• USE
• To measure mass in SI.
• Unit of Measurement
• Kilograms (kg) or grams (g)

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Lab Tool Beaker

• USE
• As a container, like a cup.
• Unit of Measurement
• Liters (L) or milliliters (mL)

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Lab Tool BUNSEN BURNER

• USE
• To heat chemicals and
• solutions in beakers or
• test tubes.

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Lab Tool Cork

• USE
• To close test tubes.

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Lab Tool Cover Slip

• USE
• Covers specimen on
• microscope slide.

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Lab Tool DISSECTING PROBE

• USE
• As a pointer or to hold
• objects.

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Lab Tool DROPPER

• USE
• To transfer small
• amounts of liquid.

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Lab Tool ERLENMEYER FLASK

• USES
• As a cup, like
• a cup with a
• narrow neck.

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Lab Tool FORCEPS

• USE
• Used to pick
• up and hold
• objects in lab

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Lab Tool FUNNEL

• USE
• To hold filter paper
• or guiding small
• amounts of liquid
• in pouring.

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Lab Tool GRADUATED CYLINDER

• USE
• To measure volume.
• Unit of Measurement
• Liters (L) or milliliters (mL)

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Lab Tool HOT PLATE

• USE
• To warm or heat objects

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Lab Tool INNOCULATING LOOP

• USES
• To spread and place
• bacterial specimen on
• agar.

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Lab ToolsIRON RING RING STAND

• USE
• To fasten to the ring stand as a support for
  items.

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Lab Tool METER STICK

• USE
• To measure distance in SI.
• Unit of Measurement
• Meter (m)

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Lab Tool MICROSCOPE

• USE
• To observe small specimens

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Lab ToolMORTAR PESTLE

• USE
• To grind chemicals into a powder.

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Lab Tool PETRI DISH

• USE
• Used to grow and hold
• bacterial specimen.

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Lab Tool PIPETTE

• USE
• To transfer small
• amounts of
• in a titration.

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Lab Tool SCALPEL

• USE
• To cut items.

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Lab Tool SLIDE

• USE
• To hold specimen being studied under a microscope.

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Lab Tool SPATULA

• USE
• To transfer solid
• chemicals in weighing
• like a spoon.

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Lab Tool STIRRING ROD

• USES
• To stir combinations
• of fluids and to use
• in pouring liquids.

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Lab Tool STOPPER

• USE
• To close and contain
• items in a test tube.

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Lab Tool STRIKER

• USE
• To ignite the Bunsen burner and start a flame.

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Lab Tool TEST TUBE

• USES
• Many uses
• such as a
• container.

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Lab Tool TEST TUBE CLAMP

• USES
• To hold apparatus, may be fastened to the ring
  stand.

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Lab Tool TEST TUBE BRUSH

• USES
• Cleans glass items

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Lab Tool TEST TUBE HOLDER

• USES
• Holds test tubes

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Lab ToolTEST TUBE RACK

• USES
• Holds test tubes.

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Lab Tool THERMOMETER

• USES
• To measure temperature.

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Lab Tool TONGS

• USE
• to pick up and
• hold hot items.

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Lab Tool WIRE GAUZE

• USES
• To spread the heat of a flame and hold items.

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Lab Tool WATCH GLASS

• USES
• As a beaker cover or in evaporating small amounts
  of liquids.

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Standard 2

• Describe cell processes necessary for achieving
  homeostasis, including active and passive
  transport, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis and
  endocytosis.

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Homeostasis

• Maintaining a constant internal environment.
• Sweating is one way the body tries to achieve
  homeostasis.

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Cellular Transport

• Passive transport requires no energy
• Diffusion compounds move from high to low
  concentration
• Osmosis diffusion of water
• Hypotonic solutions cause water to move into the
  cell so the cell swells up
• Hypertonic solutions cause water to move out of
  the cell so the cell shrivels up
• Isotonic solutions cause no net movement of water
  into or out of the cell
• Active transport requires energy
• Endocytosis large compound are brought into the
  cell
• Exocytosis large compounds are exported out of
  the cell

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Passive Transport vs. Active Transport
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Diffusion
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Standard 3

• Identify reactants and products associated with
  photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and the
  purposes of these two processes.

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Photosynthesis

• Process by which organisms use energy from
  sunlight to make their own food (glucose)
• Glucose is a simple sugar
• Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of
  plant cells and some bacteria
• Chloroplasts have a green pigment called
  chlorophyll
• Steps of photosynthesis
• 1. Light reaction chlorophyll in the
  chloroplasts absorbs sunlight
• 2. Dark reaction The energy from the sunlight is
  used to make glucose
• Light energy is completely changed into chemical
  energy (glucose)
• Chemical equation for photosynthesis
• 6CO2 6H2O light energy ? C6H12O6 O2

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Cellular Respiration

• Process that breaks down glucose in order to make
  energy for an organism
• ATP compound that stores energy in an organism
• Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell
• Two types of cellular respiration
• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen to occur
• Mostly happens in animals and plants

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Graphic Organizer
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Standard 4

• Describe similarities and differences of cell
  organelles, using diagrams and tables.

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Cells General Info

• A cell is the smallest unit that is alive and can
  carry on all the processes of life
• Cells make up organisms (living things)
• Unicellular organisms are made up of 1 cell
• Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells
• Cells contain organelles, which are specialized
  compartments that carry out a specific function
• Types of cells
• Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, such as
  animal and plant cells
• Prokaryotic cells contain no nucleus, such as
  bacteria

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Prokaryotic Cells

• Bacterial cells
• Smaller and simpler than plant or animal cells
• Bacteria are unicellular
• No nucleus
• Have a single closed loop of DNA, cell wall, cell
  membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
• Some have a capsule (shell for protection), pili
  (short hair like structures to hold onto host
  cells), and flagella (whip like structure for
  movement)

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Cell Organelles

• Organelle little organ
• Found only inside eukaryotic cells
• All the stuff in between the organelles is
  cytosol
• Everything in a cell except the nucleus is
  cytoplasm

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Cell Membrane

• Boundary of the cell
• Made of a phospholipid bilayer

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Nucleus

• Control center of the cell
• Contains DNA
• Surrounded by a double membrane
• Usually the easiest organelle to see under a
  microscope
• Usually one per cell

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Cytoskeleton

• Acts as skeleton and muscle
• Provides shape and structure
• Helps move organelles around the cell
• Made of three types of filaments

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

• A.k.a. ER
• Connected to nuclear membrane
• Highway of the cell
• Rough ER studded with ribosomes it makes
  proteins
• Smooth ER no ribosomes it makes lipids

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Ribosome

• Site of protein synthesis
• Found attached to rough ER or floating free in
  cytosol
• Produced in a part of the nucleus called the
  nucleolus

That looks familiarwhat is a polypeptide?
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Golgi Apparatus

• Looks like a stack of plates
• Stores, modifies and packages proteins
• Molecules transported to and from the Golgi by
  means of vesicles

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Lysosomes

• Garbage disposal of the cell
• Contain digestive enzymes that break down wastes

Which organelles do lysosomes work with?
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Mitochondria

• Powerhouse of the cell
• Cellular respiration occurs here to release
  energy for the cell to use
• Bound by a double membrane
• Has its own strand of DNA

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Chloroplast

• Found only in plant cells
• Contains the green pigment chlorophyll
• Site of food (glucose) production
• Bound by a double membrane
• Site of Photosynthesis

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Cell Wall

• Found in plant and bacterial cells
• Rigid, protective barrier
• Located outside of the cell membrane
• Made of cellulose (fiber)

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Vacuoles

• Large central vacuole usually in plant cells
• Many smaller vacuoles in animal cells
• Storage container for water, food, enzymes,
  wastes, pigments, etc.

What type of microscope may have been used to
take this picture?
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Centriole

• Aids in cell division
• Usually found only in animal cells
• Made of microtubules

Where else have we talked about microtubules?
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Quick Review

• Which organelle is the control center of the
  cell?
• Nucleus
• Which organelle holds the cell together?
• Cell membrane
• Which organelles are not found in animal cells?
• Cell wall, central vacuole, chloroplasts
• Which organelle helps plant cells make food?
• Chloroplasts
• What does E.R. stand for?
• Endoplasmic reticulum

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Standard 9

• Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom
  and current six-kingdom classification systems.

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Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the science of classifying living
  things
• Organisms are organized into 7 different levels
  of taxonomy (King Philip came over for good
  spaghetti)
• 1. Kingdom most broad
• 2. Phylum
• 3. Class
• 4. Order
• 5. Family
• 6. Genus
• 7. Species most specific
• Closely related organisms have more levels of
  taxonomy in common than unrelated organisms

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Kingdoms

• There are six kingdoms of living things (Archie
  eats pretty fantastic apple pies)
• 1. Archaebacteria bacteria that live in extreme
  environments
• 2. Eubacteria common bacteria
• 3. Protista Single-celled organisms
• 4. Fungi Mushrooms, yeasts, molds
• 5. Animalia animals
• 6. Plantae plants

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Kingdoms

• Every organism has a unique two-word scientific
  name that is written in Latin
• The first word is the genus, the second word is
  the species (Humans are Homo sapiens)
• Some scientists prefer to organize organisms into
  domains rather than kingdoms
• There are three domains (Archie eats eels)
• 1. Archaea Bacteria that live in extreme
  environments
• 2. Eubacteria Common bacteria
• 3. Eukarya Organisms whose DNA is in a nucleus

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Archaebacteria- extreme
Plants
Eubacteria- food
Animals
Fungi
Protists
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Standard 6

• Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems,
  organisms, populations,
• communities, and ecosystems as levels of
  organization in the biosphere.

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Levels of biologic organization

• Starting at the simplest level, atoms are
  organized into molecules, which are organized
  into cells. Cells are organized into tissues,
  tissues into organs, organs into body systems,
  and body systems into individual Multicellular
  organisms. A group of individuals of the same
  species is a population. Populations of different
  species interact to form communities. A community
  and it abiotic environment are an ecosystem,
  while all communities of organisms on Earth
  comprise the biosphere. Ecologists study the
  highest levels of biological organization
  individual organisms, populations,
  communities/ecosystems, and the biosphere.

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Standard 6

• Describe the roles of mitotic and meiotic
  divisions during reproduction,
• growth, and repair of cells.

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Cell Cycle

• The cell cycle is the phases in the life of a
  cell
• 1. M phase Mitosis (cell division) occurs
• 2. G1 phase Cell grows
• 3. S phase DNA synthesis (chromosomes are
  copied)
• 4. G2 phase Cell grows
• 5. M phase begins again
• Chromosomes must be copied before mitosis so that
  new cells receive the same chromosomes found in
  the old cells

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Mitosis

• Division of a cell into 2 identical cells
• Before mitosis Chromosomes have copied
  themselves
• Sister chromatids original chromosome and its
  exact copy are attached to each other
• Phases of mitosis
• 1. Prophase Nuclear membrane falls apart and
  spindle fibers start to form
• 2. Metaphase Sister chromatids line up along the
  middle of the spindle fibers
• 3. Anaphase Sister chromatids separate and move
  to opposite ends of the cell
• 4. Telophase Spindle fibers break down and new
  nuclear membrane forms around each set of
  chromosomes

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Meiosis

• Cell division that produces gametes (sex cells),
  such as sperm and egg cells
• Fertilization Process of an egg and a sperm cell
  combining to produce a zygote
• Zygote Baby that is only 1 cell big
• Egg cell (23 chromosomes) sperm cell (23
  chromosomes) baby (46 chromosomes)
• Steps in meiosis
• 1. Before meiosis
• 2 chromosomes of the same type come together to
  make a chromosome pair
• Each chromosome doubles
• This gives 4 chromosomes stuck together
• 2. Meiosis I Chromosome pairs separate into two
  new cells
• 3. Meiosis II Each chromosome separates from its
  copy into 4 new cells
• In meiosis, one cell becomes four cells but in
  mitosis, one cell becomes two cells

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Standard 7

• Apply Mendels Laws to determine phenotype and
  genotypic probabilities of offspring produced

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Mendelian Genetics

• Gregor Mendel is an Austrian monk credited with
  beginning the study of genetics
• Genetics is the study of heredity
• Humans have 2 genes for every trait
• Alleles Different forms of a single trait, like
  blue and brown are two eye color alleles
• Dominant gene Stronger of 2 genes and shows
  up in the organism
• Represented by a capital letter
• B is the dominant gene for brown eyes
• Recessive gene Weaker of 2 genes and only
  shows up when there is no dominant gene present
• Represented by a lowercase letter
• b is the recessive gene for blue eyes
• Homozygous (purebred) When 2 genes are alike
  for a trait
• BB is homozygous for brown eyes, bb is
  homozygous for blue eyes
• Heterozygous (hybrid) When 2 genes are different
  for a trait
• Bb is heterozygous

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Mendels Laws

• Mendels law of segregation states that the 2
  genes we have for each trait get separated from
  one another when we make egg and sperm cells
• Mendels law of independent assortment states
  that the gene for one trait is inherited
  independently of the genes for other traits
• Only true when the genes are on different
  chromosomes

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Punnett Squares

• Punnett squares are charts that are used to show
  the possible gene combinations in a cross between
  2 organisms
• Lets say that B is the dominant gene for brown
  eyes and b is the recessive gene for blue eyes
• Genotype The genes of an organism (Bb)
• Phenotype The physical appearance of an
  organism (Brown eyes)

Parents Bbxbb
Parents BbxBb
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Human Genetics

• Multiple alleles are three or more alleles that
  exist for a single gene
• For example, A, B, and O are the multiple alleles
  for blood type
• The possible blood types are A, B, AB, and O
• You can be A or A-, B or B-, AB or AB-, O
  or O- depending on whether your blood cells have
  a special Rh protein
• Codominance occurs when 2 dominant genes are
  expressed and both genes are seen in the organism
• AB blood is codominant, a cat with black and
  white spots is codominant
• Incomplete dominance occurs when 2 dominant genes
  are expressed and blended together in the
  organism
• If the red flower color gene (R) is mixed with
  the white flower color gene (W) then the
  offspring will be pink (RW)
• A polygenic trait is a trait that is controlled
  by more than one pair of genes, like skin color
• A sex-linked trait is a trait that is found on
  the X chromosome, such as colorblindness
• Females are XX so have 2 copies of sex-linked
  traits
• Males are XY so have 1 copy of sex-linked traits

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Standard 8

• Identify the structure and functions of DNA, RNA,
  and proteins

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DNA

• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Makes up the chromosomes in the nucleus and never
  leaves the nucleus
• A chromosome is a chain of different genes
• DNA has a double helix shape
• Has four types of bases adenine (A), guanine
  (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C)
• A binds T and G binds C
• DNA is complementary, which means that the bases
  on one strand match up to the bases on the other
  strand
• For example Strand 1 ATG CCT GAC
• Strand 2 TAC GGA CTG
• Semi conservative replication is the process by
  which DNA copies itself and each new piece of DNA
  is made up of 1 old strand and 1 new strand

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DNA
RNA
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RNA

• Ribonucleic acid
• RNA is a copy of DNA that goes out into the
  cytoplasm to tell the cell what to do in order to
  stay alive
• RNA is single stranded and has uracil (U) rather
  than thymine (T)
• U binds A and
  G binds C
• If the DNA is ATG CCA AAG
• Then the RNA will be UAC GGU UUC

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Using DNA to make protein

• 1. Transcription DNA in the nucleus is used to
  make messenger RNA (mRNA)
• DNA has all the directions the cell needs to live
• 2. RNA moves out into the cytoplasm
• RNA carries the directions to other parts of the
  cell
• 3. Translation The RNA attaches to a ribosome
  and directs the production of a protein
• Proteins do all the work in the cell
• Every 3 bases in RNA is called a codon and codes
  for 1 amino acid

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Transcription
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Mutations

• A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome
• If the mutation happens in a body cell, it only
  affects the organism that carries it
• If the mutation happens in a sex cell, it can be
  passed on to offspring
• Mutations can be
• harmful if they reduce an organisms chances for
  reproduction or survival
• helpful if they improve an organisms chances for
  survival
• neutral if they do not produce an obvious changes
  in an organism
• lethal if they result in the immediate death of
  an organism
• Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by
  a mutagen, which is a factor in the environment
  like UV and chemicals

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Mutations

• Bully whippets, as the heavyset dogs are known,
  turn out to have a genetic mutation that enhances
  muscle development The scientists found that
  the same mutation that pumps up some whippets
  makes others among the fastest dogs on the track.
• Scientists also discovered that with these
  mutations, whippets are able to nip your ankle 4
  times faster and twice as hard.

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Standard 10

• Distinguish between monocots, dicots, angiosperms
  and gymnosperms, and vascular and nonvascular
  plants.

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NonVascular Plants

• Does not have vascular tissue or true roots,
  leaves, or stems
• reproduction and survival depend on water. They
  MUST live in moist environments.
• examples
• mosses
• liverwarts
• Hornwarts

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Vascular Plants

• Have roots, stems, leaves vascular tissue.
• Vascular tissuetissue in plant that transports
  food/water
• Vascular refers to veins
• Xylem transports water and minerals
• Phloem transports food/nutrients
• Not all plants have vascular tissue
• Is a basis for dividing plants into different
  phyla

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Vascular Plants

• have vascular system, but dont produce seeds
• ex fern
• Leaves fronds
• Produce spores
• 3 divisions
• Lycophyta Club mosses
• Arthrophyta- horsetails
• Pterophyta- ferns
• 2 types of Vascular plants
• Gymnosperms (4 phyla)
• Angiosperms (1 large phylum)

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Gymnosperms (naked seeds)

• Seeds are not protected by a fruit
• Examples
• Ginko biloba
• Conifersplants with seeds inside cones and
  needle-like leaves
• Pines, firs, cedars, redwoods

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Angiosperms

• Flowering plants
• Seeds are protected by fruit
• Produce fruits with 1 or more seeds
• Fruitripened ovary of flower
• Fruit aid in seed dispersal
• Examples maple trees, apple trees, wildflowers,
  herbs, azaleas, grass, oak trees, poplar trees

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Two types of angiosperms
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Flower Structure
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Plant adaptations to living on land

• cuticleswaxy coating on the outside of plant
  that prevents water loss
• Leavesbroad flat structures (usually) that trap
  light energy for photosynthesis
• Rootsstructures that allow plants to obtain
  water/nutrients from soil

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Plant adaptations

• Stem- plant organ that provides support for
  growth and food storage.
• spores and seedsstructures that keep
  reproductive cells from drying out
• Xylem- transports water dissolved substances
• Phloemtransports dissolved sugar

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Plant Tissues

• Stomata
• Controls the exchange of gases
• Helps control water loss.
• Guard Cells
• Control the opening closing of the stomata

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Flower Structure

• Flowers are reproductive structures for
  angiosperms
• Produce fruit and seeds

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Plant Organs

• Petal
• Structure leaf like, usually colorful
  structures at top of stem
• Function attract pollinators

Sepal S leaf like, usually green structure that
encircle flower stem below petal F to protect
developing flower
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Plant Organs
Pistil S located at center of flower, top of
stem F female reproductive part Stylethe
stalk that supports stigma Stigmatop of style
sticky or hairy structure that traps pollen
grains Ovaryenlarged base of pistil contains
one egg
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Plant Organs
Anther
Stamen
Filament
Stamen S located inside of petals F male
reproductive part Anthertop part of stamen,
produces pollen Filamentstalk that supports
anther
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Standard 11

• Classify animals according to type of skeletal
  structure, method of fertilization (internal/
  external) and reproduction (sexual or asexual),
  body symmetry (asymmetrical, radial, bilateral),
  body coverings, and locomotion.

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Distinguish between vertebrates and invertebrates
skeletal structure
Porifera Sponges
Cnidarians Stingers
Platyhelminthes Flatworms
Annelida Segmented Worms
Mollusca Shelled animals
Echinodermata Starfish
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Vertebrates
Agnatha Sea-lamprey
Chondrichthyes Sharks rays
Osteoicthyes Bony fish
Amphibia Frogs toads
Reptilia Turtles, snakes, lizards
Aves Birds
Chordates Mammals
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Internal vs. External Fertilization

• Characteristics of external fertilization include
  
• large numbers of eggs/ sperm produced
• little parental care
• chance of offspring survival is low,
• Internal fertilization
• few offspring produced
• more parental care
• greater chance of survival

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Compare asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction

• Asexual-- only one individual involved in
  producing offspring
• fission, Budding, Regeneration
• fewer variations produced among offspring
• animal examples--sponges, cnidarians,
  echinoderms,
• worm phyla
• Sexualseparate male and female individuals that
  produce
• sex cells
• sex cells unit to form zygote
• produce greater variations among offspring
• Animal examples include most higher invertebrates
  and
• vertebrates

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Compare radial and bilateral symmetry

• Radial body parts arranged like spokes of a wheel
  from a central axis
• oral and aboral sides not head or tail ends
• Animal examples are starfish, jellyfish,
• sea anemone
• Bilateralbody parts arranged in left and right
  mirror image halves
• definite head end and tail end
• top (dorsal) and bottom (ventral) sides
• Animal examples include flatworms,
  roundworms,segmented worms, arthropods,
  vertebrates

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Classify animals according to body covering

• scales (fish and chrondrichthyes, reptiles)
• moist skin (amphibians)
• feathers (birds)
• hair (mammals)

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Classify animals according to type of locomotion

• fins for swimming
• legs for land dwellings animals
• wings for flight

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Be able to classify animals according to body
temperature

• Endothermic or warm-blooded/ constant body
  temperature (birds mammals) or

• Exothermic or cold-blooded/ body temperature near
  the temperature of their surroundings (all other
  animals)

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Classify animals according to means of
respiration

• covered gills bony fishes
• open gills sharks and rays
• gills (young), moist skin, lungs amphibians
  lungs reptiles, birds mammals

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Standard 12

• Describe protective adaptations of animals,
  including mimicry, camouflage, beak type,
  migration, and hibernation.

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Mimicry

• Mimicry is the ability of one species to resemble
  or copy from another species (mimicking them).
  Why It provides protection.
• Camouflage is blending in with the surroundings.

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Adaptations

• 1. These are direct evidence of evolution
  because they show firsthand the way populations
  of species have evolved in order to better adapt
  to their environment
• Structural adaptationsclaws, beaks, wings
• Physiological adaptationsresistance to
  substances after constant exposure

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2. Migration

• Immigration movement of individuals INTO a
  population
• Emigration movement of individuals OUT of a
  population
• Brings in new genes/alleles through gene flow
• Gene flow process of genes moving from one
  population to another

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Migration vs. Hibernation

• Migration is the instinctive, seasonal movement
• Hibernation is when the body processes slow down
  tremendously (b/c of winter) estivation is the
  same except animals do this in response to heat
  (desert temperatures)

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Standard 13

• Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through
  the trophic levels from producers to the
  quaternary level in food chains, food webs, and
  energy pyramids.

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There are different feeding groups of organisms

• Autotrophs Organisms that make their own food,
  like plants and some bacteria
• Heterotrophs Organisms that cannot make their
  own food, like
• Herbivores Eat plants
• Carnivores Eat meat
• Omnivores Eat plants and meat

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There are different factors is an ecosystem

• Abiotic factors are nonliving things
• Biotic factors are living things, such as
• Producers Organisms that take in energy from
  their surroundings to make their own food
• Consumers Organisms that eat other organisms for
  energy
• Decomposers Special type of consumer that eats
  waste products and dead organisms for energy

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Food Chains

• There are different trophic levels in a food
  chain
• A trophic level is a feeding level in an
  ecosystem
• A food chain is a lineup of organisms that shows
  who eats who
• 1st trophic level is usually a producer
• 2nd trophic level is a primary consumer
• 3rd trophic level is a secondary consumer
• 4th trophic level is a tertiary consumer
• and so on
• Last trophic level is a decomposer
• Every time an organism eats, it obtains energy
  from its food
• So energy is transferred from the 1st to the 2nd
  to the 3rd trophic level and so on (but some of
  this energy does get lost along the way)
• Energy pyramid Picture showing how much energy
  is transferred to the different trophic levels in
  a food chain
• A food web is a network of connected food chains

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Standard 14

• Trace biochemical cycles through the environment,
  including water,
• carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.

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The nitrogen cycle

• Nitrogen in the atmosphere is taken in by
  bacteria that live in plant roots
• The nitrogen is passed onto the plants and any
  animals that eat the plants
• Once the plant or animal has died, decomposers
  (bacteria) again take up the nitrogen in the dead
  material and send it back to the atmosphere

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The Water Cycle

• Precipitation, such as rain and snow, fall to the
  earth
• The water either
• seeps into the ground for plants to use and the
  plants give off excess water back to the
  atmosphere
• or runs off the land to lower-lying bodies of
  water where it evaporates back into the atmosphere

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The oxygen-carbon cycle

• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is taken in by
  plants who use it during photosynthesis and
  release oxygen back into the atmosphere
• Oxygen in the atmosphere is taken in by animals
  and plants who use it during respiration and
  release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere

135
Standard 15

• Identify biomes based on environmental factors
  and native organisms.

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Biome Water Temperature Soil Plants Animals
Desert Almost none hot or cold poor sparse - succulents (like cactus), sage brush sparse - insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds (often nocturnal)
Chaparral/ Scrub dry summer, rainy winter hot summer, cool winter poor shrubs, some woodland (like scrub oak) drought and fire-adapted animals
Tundra dry cold permafrost (frozen soil) lichens and mosses migrating animals
Taiga/ Coniferous Forest adequate cool year-round poor, rocky soil conifers many mammals, birds, insects, arachnids, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Forest adequate cool season and warm season fertile soil deciduous trees many mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, arachnids, etc.
Savanna/ Grassland/ Prairie, Steppe, Pampas wet season, dry season warm to hot (often with a cold season) fertile soil grasses (few or no trees) many mammals, birds, insects, arachnids, etc.
Tropical Rain Forest very wet always warm poor, thin soil many plants many animals
137
Know two aquatic biomes

• Marineoceans and seas
• Freshwater --creeks, streams, rivers and lakes
• Know rainfall amounts and temperature ranges
• Know native organismsplants animals

138
Standard 16

• Identify density-dependent and density-independent
  limiting factors that affect populations in an
  ecosystem.

139
Ecosystem

• Ecosystem defined as natural unit consisting of
  all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic
  factors) in an area functioning together with all
  the non-living physical factors (abiotic
  factors)of the environment.
• Abiotic factors include soil, atmosphere, heat
  and light from the sun, water
• Biotic factors include living organisms
• A population group of organisms of the same
  species that live in a particular area.
• The number of organisms in a population changes
  over time because of the following births,
  deaths, immigration,and emigration

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Limiting Factors

• Limiting factors are things that can help
  populations grow, or others that can slow down
  and even prevent populations from growing.
• Density-dependent factors that limit population
  growth are food water, light, space, predators,
  More prey, more predators, as prey decreases, so
  does the number of predators
• Disease (since disease is contagious, greater the
  population, greater impact of disease)
• Parasitism (like diseases, since parasites spread
  easier in a high-density host, impact depends on
  the density
• Abiotic factors that are density-independent
  factors
• include such things as natural disasters like
  weather storms, fires, earthquakes, or floods.
• Any abiotic factor can have a severe impact on
  population sizes regardless of density