Title: Middle Childhood: Physical
1Middle Childhood Physical Cognitive
Development
- Chapter 9
- Development Across the Lifespan
2Physical Development in Middle Childhood Slow
but Steady
- Beginning at about age 6 and continuing to age
12, children go through middle childhood. This
period is often referred to as the "school
years". - In what ways do children grow during the school
years, and what factors influence their growth?
3Compared with the swift growth during the first 5
years, physical growth during middle childhood is
slow but steady.
- School-aged children grow, on average, 2 to 3
inches per year. - This is the only time during the life span when
girls are, on average, taller than boys. - By age 11, the average girl is 4' 10".
- The average 11-year-old boy is 4' 9 1/2 ".
4(physical growth during middle childhood,
continued)
- During middle childhood, both boys and girls gain
from 5 to 7 pounds a year. - Variations of a half a foot in children the same
age are not uncommon. - Height and weight variations can be affected by
poor nutrition and racial or ethnic background. - Smaller children in areas with poor nutrition
(possibly related in part to racial/ethnic
differences too)
5(No Transcript)
6Promoting Growth with Hormones A controversy
- Available only the last decade, prototropin and
other artificial human growth hormones are being
taken by over 20,000 abnormally short children. - Some developmentalists question whether shortness
is serious enough to warrant drug intervention. - The drug is costly and may lead to premature
puberty (which can restrict later growth). - These artificial hormones are effective adding
over a foot of height
7Nutrition is also linked to physical
development during middle childhood
- Proper nutrition is linked to positive
personality traits
- more alert
- more energy
- more persistent
- more self confidence
- More involved with peers
- more positive emotions
- more often
- less anxiety
- more investigative
8Nutritional Benefits
Children with more nutritious diets had more
energy self confidence.
9(Nutrition and physical development during
middle childhood, continued)
- Undernutrition Malnutrition definitely lead to
physical, social and cognitive difficulties for
children in middle childhood - BUT, Overnutrition (the intake of too many
calories) also presents problems!
10(Nutrition and physical development during
middle childhood, continued)
- Obesity is defined as body weight that is more
than 20 above the average for a person of a
given height and weight. - 10 of all children are obese.
- This proportion has risen 54 since the 1960s
11Balanced Diet?
Recent studies have found that childrens diets
are almost opposite the diet recommended by the
US department of agriculture, which can lead to
an increase in obesity.
12(Nutrition and physical development during
middle childhood, continued)
- Despite growing rates of obesity, American
society places a strong emphasis on thinness. - Concern about weight increasingly borders on
obsession in the United States (especially for
girls) - Research indicates that a substantial number of 6
year old girls worry about becoming fat - 40 of 9 10 year olds are trying to
lose weight! - WHY? Mostly due to our societys preoccupation
with being slim
13Despite the focus on thinness in the U.S., the
number of obese children is increasing.
- Obesity can be caused by a combination of genetic
and social characteristics. - School-age children tend to engage in little
exercise and are not particularly fit. - The correlation between TV viewing and obesity is
strong.
14Even without regular exercise, however,
childrens gross fine motor skills develop
substantially during the school years.
- Fine Motor Skills
- These continue to advance
- Increased levels of myelin around the nerve cells
raise the speed of messages traveling to muscles - Gross Motor Skills
- Important advances, including muscle coordination
- Gender differences likely the result of societal
messages/expectations rather than motor skill
15Gross Motor Skills
Gross motor skills continue to develop and
advance across the middle childhood years.
16Physical in Middle Childhood Motor Development
Main Points
- School-age children's gross and fine motor skills
develop substantially over middle childhood. - An important improvement in gross motor skills is
muscle coordination. - Fine motor skills advance because of increases in
the amount of myelin insulating the brain neurons.
17Health During Middle Childhood
- For most children in the U.S., the common cold
is about the most serious illness that occurs
during middle childhood. - BUT colds are not uncommon during middle
childhood - 1 in 9 has a chronic, persistent condition
- Although life threatening illnesses have declined
over the past 50 years, some chronic illnesses
have become more prevalent
18One illness that has increased in prevalence
Asthma
- ASTHMA, a chronic condition characterized by
periodic attacks of wheezing, coughing, and
shortness of breath, has increased significantly
in the last several decades. - Asthma attacks are triggered by a variety of
factors. - respiratory infections
- allergic reactions to airborne irritants
- Stress
- exercise
19(asthma, continued)
- Children can use an aerosol container with
special mouthpiece to spray drugs into the lungs.
- Some researchers believe the increase in asthma
is due to pollution, dust due to better insulated
buildings, and poverty
20Rising Rates of Asthma
Sine the 1980s, the rate of asthma among
children has almost doubled! Pollution, and
better methods of detecting the disease are
reasons this is so.
21Health during middle childhood Psychological
Disorders
- It is important that psychological disorders
not be ignored in school age children (which
often occurs because symptoms are different than
those of adults) - Childhood depression is one psychological issue
often overlooked by teachers and parents. - 2-5 of school age children suffer from
depression - For 1 depression is severe (express suicidal
ideas)
22Health during middle childhood Psychological
Disorders
- All kids are sad sometimes. This is different
than depression (depth of sadness, length
distinguish) - Childhood depression is also characterized by the
expression of exaggerated fears, clinginess, or
avoidance of everyday activities. - In older children it may produce sulking, school
problems, and acts of delinquency. - It can be treated with a variety of approaches.
23Approaches to treating childhood depression
- Psychological Counseling
- Effective!
- Drugs
- Controversial!
- About 200,000 Prozac prescriptions written in
1996 for kids aged 6-12 (a 300 increase over the
previous year!) - Criticisms not approved for use with children
and teens lack of long term effectiveness of the
drug consequences to developing brains lead in
for further drug use
24 Another psychological issue that surfaces
during middle childhood anxiety disorders
(8-9 of children)
- Intense, uncontrollable anxiety about situations
that most people would not find bothersome - Specific stimuli (germs, school)
- Generalized anxiety (source can not be
pinpointed) - It is important not to ignore psychological
issues during childhood! - disruptive to the childs life
- children with psychological problems are at
higher risk for future disorders during adulthood
25More Impacts on Development Children with
Special Needs
- One student in a thousand requires special
education services relating to VISUAL IMPAIRMENT,
legally defined as difficulties in seeing that
may include blindness (less than or 20/200 after
correction) or partial sightedness (20/70 after
correction). - Visual impairments can also include the inability
to see up-close and disabilities in color, depth,
and light perception.
26(Children with Special Needs, continued)
- AUDITORY IMPAIRMENT, a special need that involves
the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing,
affects one to two percent of school-age children
and can vary across a number of dimensions. - The loss may be limited to certain frequencies.
- Loss in infancy is more severe than after age 3.
- Children who have little or no exposure to the
sound of language are unable to understand or
produce oral language themselves. - Abstract thinking may be affected.
27(Children with Special Needs, continued)
- Auditory impairments are sometimes accompanied by
SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS, speech that is impaired when
it deviates so much from the speech of others
that it calls attention to itself, interferes
with communication, or produces maladjustments in
the speaker. - 3 to 5 of school-age children have speech
impairments. - STUTTERING, a substantial disruption in the
rhythm and fluency of speech is the most common
speech impairment.
28(Children with Special Needs, continued)
- Some 2.3 million school-age children in the U.S.
are officially labeled as having LEARNING
DISABILITIES, difficulties in the acquisition and
use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning, or mathematical abilities. - Some suffer from dyslexia, a reading disability
that can result in the reversal of letters during
reading and writing, confusion between left and
right, and difficulties in spelling
29(Children with Special Needs, continued)
- ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
is a learning disability marked by inattention,
impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration,
and generally a great deal of inappropriate
activity. - 3 to 5 percent of school-age children are
estimated to have ADHD (3.5 million Americans
under age 18!). - Ritalin or Dexadrine are stimulants used to
reduce hyperactivity levels in children with
ADHD.
30Overprescribing Ritalin?
U.S. doctors prescribe Ritalin for ADHD more
frequently. Some experts argue the drug is
overprescribed.
31- If a child is suspected of having ADHD or a
learning disability, it is important that she or
he be evaluated by a specialist. - Teachers parents should be alert to the
possibility that speech, auditory, and visual
problems may be impacting a child (grades,
friendships, etc.)
32Intellectual Development in Middle Childhood
Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Advances
- The school-age child enters the CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL STAGE, the period of cognitive
development between 7 and 12 years of age, - Characterized by the active, and appropriate use
of logic. - Children at this stage can easily solve
conservation problemslogic used over appearance.
- (for example whether the amount of liquid stays
the same although poured into different shaped
containers)
33(No Transcript)
34(more about Piagets views of intellectual
development)
- Because they are less egocentric, they can take
multiple aspects of a situation into account, a
process known as DECENTERING - They attain the concept of reversibility,
realizing that a stimulus can be reversed,
returning to its original form.
35Decentering Reversibility
36decentering
37So, during middle childhood, cognitive advances
continue and the development of concrete
operational skills becomes more established.
- Children at this stage can understand such
concepts as relationships between time and speed
38At the beginning of the concrete operational
stage, kids reason that the 2 cars on these
routes are traveling the same speed even though
they arrive at the same time. Later, they realize
the correct relationship between speed distance.
39- Despite the obvious advances that occur during
the concrete operational stage, children still
experience a big limitation in their thinking
They are still tied to concrete physical reality! - (no understanding of abstract/hypothetical/logic)
40A brief critique of Piagets views of
intellectual development
- Piaget is criticized for underestimating
children's abilities and for exaggerating the
universality of the progression through the
stages. - Research suggest that Piaget was more right than
wrong. - Cross-cultural research increasingly implies
children universally achieve concrete operations,
and that training with conservation tasks
improves performance.
41Conservation Training
Rural Aborigine children trail their urban
counterparts in the development of their
understanding of conservation with training,they
catch up.
42Information Processing in Middle Childhood
- Children become increasingly able to handle
information because their memories improve. - MEMORY is the process by which information is
initially encoded, stored, and retrieved. - Encoding is the process by which information is
initially recorded in a form usable to memory. - The information must be stored, or placed and
maintained in the memory system. - Information must be retrieved, located and
brought into awareness.
43(Information Processing in Middle Childhood,
continued )
- During middle childhood, short-term memory
capacity improves significantly. - META-MEMORY, an understanding about the processes
that underlie memory emerge and improve during
middle childhood. - Children use control strategies, conscious,
intentionally used tactics to improve cognitive
functioning. - Children can be trained to use control strategies
and improve memory.
44Vygotsky's Approach to Cognitive Development
Classroom Instruction
- Vygotsky's approach has been particularly
influential in the development of several
classroom practices. - Classrooms are seen as places where children
should have the opportunity to try out new
activities. - Specifically, Vygotsky suggests that children
should focus on activities that involve
interaction with others.
45(Vygotsky's Approach, continued)
- Cooperative learning is a strategy used in
education that incorporates several aspects of
Vygotsky's theory (kids work together to achieve
goals). - Reciprocal teaching, a technique where students
are taught to skim the content of a passage,
raise questions about its central point,
summarize the passage, and finally, predict what
will happen next, help lead students through the
zone of proximal development. - Significant success rates with raising reading
comprehension levels
46Language Development During Middle Childhood
- Vocabulary continues to increase during the
school years. - School-age children's mastery of grammar
improves. - Children's understanding of syntax, the rules
that indicate how words and phrases can be
combined to form sentences, grows during
childhood. - Certain phonemes, units of sound, remain
troublesome (j, v, h, zh).
47(Language Development During Middle Childhood,
continued)
- School-age children may have difficulty decoding
sentences when the meaning depends on intonation,
or tone of voice. - Children become more competent in their use of
pragmatics, the rules governing the use of
language to communicate in a social context. - Language helps children control their behavior.
- One of the most significant developments in
middle childhood is the increase in
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS, an understanding of
one's own use of language.
48(Language Development During Middle Childhood,
continued)
- ? BILINGUALISM is the use of more than one
language. - English is a second language for more than 32
million Americans. - Being bilingual may have cognitive advantages.
- greater cognitive flexibility
- greater metalinguistic awareness
- may improve scores on IQ tests
49The Voices of America
The number of U.S. residents over the age of five
who speak a language other than English at home.
50(Language Development During Middle Childhood,
continued)
- The effectiveness of language immersion programs
where subjects are taught in a foreign language
show mixed results. - All subjects in a school taught in a foreign
language! - Benefits include increased self esteem
- Negative results common when minority groups
immersed in English only programs - Positive results when children (especially
majority group children) are learning languages
not spoken by the dominant culture
51The Ebonics Controversy
- Issues revolving around Ebonics (derived from
combo of ebony and phonics), or Black English, or
African American Vernacular English raises
important issues that are social as well as
linguistic.
52The word/concept has been in use since the
1970s, but mainstreamed by the Oakland school
district
- They declared Ebonics a distinctive language,
ordered initial instruction to be in Ebonics for
those speaking it - With a month, the board revoked its decision due
to national controversy the board said they
never meant students to learn anything other than
standard English, but had wanted recognition that
African American students may need instruction to
make the leap from Ebonics at home to standard
English.
53(The Ebonics Controversy, continued)
- Linguists debate a dialect of standard English?
Or a language of its own with rules, etc.? - Most educators/linguists would agree that any
nonstandard English is not an inferior form of
language, but a different one. - The controversy raises important issues about
development social linguistic!
54Schooling in Middle Childhood
- School marks the time when society formally
attempts to transfer its body of knowledge,
beliefs, values, and accumulated wisdom to new
generations. - In the U. S., a primary school education is both
a universal right and a legal requirement. - More than 160 million of the world's children do
not have access to education. - Close to a billion people (2/3 of them women) are
illiterate throughout their lives.
55The Plague of Illiteracy
56(Schooling in Middle Childhood, continued)
- In developing countries, females receive less
formal education than males. - In developed countries, women still receive less
education than men on average, particularly in
science technology topics. - Why?
- -Widespread cultural parental biases favoring
males over females
57When are kids ready for school?
- Recent research suggests that age is not a
critical indicator of when children should start
school. - Some research suggests that delaying childrens
entrance into school based on age may actually be
harmful! - Developmental readiness is a better measure
(family support, etc.)
58Reading Learning Meaning
- ? Development of reading skill generally occurs
in several broad, frequently overlapping stages. - Stage 0
- lasts from birth to the start of first grade
- children learn the essential prerequisites for
reading, including identification of the letters
in the alphabet, writing their names, and reading
a few words.
59(stages of reading development, continued)
- Stage 1
- first and second grade
- is the first real reading, but it is largely
phonological decoding skill where children can
sound out words by sounding out and blending
letters
60(Development of reading skill, continued)
- Stage 2, typically around second and third
grades, children learn to read aloud with
fluency. - Stage 3 extends from fourth to eighth grades
where reading becomes a means to an end and an
enjoyable way to learn. - Stage 4 is where the child understands reading in
terms of reflecting multiple points of view.
(summary table in text)
61? There is an ongoing debate among educators
regarding the most effective way to teach reading.
- Code-based approaches to reading emphasize
phonics and how letters and sounds are combined
to make words. - Whole-language approaches to reading are based on
the notion that children should learn to read as
they learn to talk, by exposure to complete
writing and being immersed in literature. - The National Research Council, in a landmark
decision in 1998, argued that the optimum
approach was to use a combination of elements
from both approaches.
62Educational Trends
- Schooling in the early 2000s is changing!
- Return to the fundamentals (reading, writing,
arithmetic) - Individual accountability stressed (teachers
students) - Increased attention to issues of student
diversity multiculturalism. - Demographics in U.S. shifting!
63Changes in the Face of America
- By the year 2050, non-Hispanic Caucasians will
likely become a minority of the total U.S.
population.
64Multicultural Education
- Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values,
and expectations shared by members of a
particular society. - Subcultural groups are particular racial, ethnic,
religious, socio-economic or gender groups within
a given culture. - In recent years the goal has been to establish
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION to help minority students
develop competence in the culture of the majority
group while maintaining positive group identities
that build on their original culture
65Multicultural education
is based on several models
- The CULTURAL ASSIMILATION MODEL fosters the view
of the American society as the proverbial melting
pot. - More recent trends are based on the PLURALISTIC
SOCIETY MODEL, which is the concept that American
society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural
groups that should preserve their individual
cultural features (tossed salad ).
66(Multicultural education models, continued)
- Today, most educators recommend that children
develop a BICULTURAL IDENTITY, by maintaining
their original cultural identity while
integrating into the dominant culture - (the individual as a member of 2 cultures,
without having to choose!)
67Intelligence Determining Individual Strengths
- ? INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to understand the
world, think rationally, and use resources
effectively when faced with challenges. - Alfred Binet's pioneering efforts in intelligence
testing left three important legacies. - 1) He defined intelligence pragmatically as
that which his test measured, - 2) Intelligence tests should be reasonable
indicators of school success.
68Binet Intelligence, continued
- He invented the concept of IQ, INTELLIGENCE
QUOTIENT, a measure of intelligence that takes
into account a student's mental and chronological
age - (MA ) CA X 100 IQ.
- MENTAL AGE is the typical intelligence level
found for people at a given chronological age. - CHRONOLOGICAL (OR PHYSICAL) AGE is the actual age
of the child taking the intelligence test.
69Binet Intelligence, continued
- Scores today are deviation IQ scores, so that the
degree of deviation from the average (100)
permits a calculation of the proportion of people
who have similar scores. - 2/3 of all people fall within 15 points of the
average. - As scores rise and fall beyond the average range,
the percentage of people falls significantly.
70Measuring IQ in the Present Day
- Intelligence tests today share an underlying
premise that intelligence is composed of a
single, unitary mental ability factor, commonly
called "g". - 3 main assessment instruments used today
- 1) The STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE is a
test that consists of a series of items that vary
according to the age of the person being tested.
71(Measuring IQ in the Present Day, continued)
- 2) The WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR
CHILDREN-REVISED (WISC-III) is a test for
children that provides separate measures of
verbal and performance (or nonverbal) skills as
well as a total score. - 3) The WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE-REVISED
(WAIS-III) is a test for adults that provides
separate measures of verbal and performance (or
nonverbal) skills as well as a total score.
72Measuring Intelligence
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children
includes items that assess both verbal and
performance skills.
73Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children takes
another approach to assessing intelligence.
- looks at ability to use step-by-step thinking
and integrate stimuli - allows the child to use gestures and languages
other than English, making testing more valid and
equitable for kids that use English as a second
language. - IMPORTANT POINT! Think critically about
assessment instruments (norm groups, locations,
ages, etc.)
74What do IQ scores from these tests mean?
- Reasonably good predictors of school performance
- NOT good predictors of performance outside of
school - Frequently inaccurate at predicting future
success, income, etc.!
75More than IQ tests Alternative Conceptions of
Intelligence
- The intelligence tests frequently used in schools
assume that intelligence is a single, mental
ability. - Many theorists now dispute the notion that
intelligence is unidimensional (that g or a
single unitary mental ability factor exists).
76Some developmentalists believe 2 types of
intelligence should be focused on instead
- Some psychologists suggest there are two kinds of
intelligence. - FLUID INTELLIGENCE is the ability to deal with
new problems and situations. - CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE is the store of
information, skills, and strategies that people
have acquired through education and prior
experiences, and through their previous use of
fluid intelligence
77Still Another View of intelligence
- Howard Gardner suggests there are 8 distinct
intelligences (that work together at times). - Musical intelligence
- Bodily kinesthetic intelligence
- Logical mathematical intelligence
- Linguistic intelligence
- Spatial intelligence
- Interpersonal intelligence
- Intrapersonal intelligence
- Naturalist intelligence
(See summary table in text)
78Another View of intelligence Robert Sternberg
- Sternberg suggests that intelligence is best
thought of in terms of information processing
(people store material for later use in solving
intellectual tasks). - Robert Sternberg developed the TRIARCHIC THEORY
OF INTELLIGENCE, which states that intelligence
consists of three aspects of information
processing componential, experiential, and
contextual.
79(Robert Sternberg developed the TRIARCHIC THEORY
OF INTELLIGENCE, continued)
- The componential element reflects how people
process and analyze information. - The experiential element is the insightful
component. - The contextual deals with practical intelligence
- the demands of everyday environment.
80- The question of how to interpret differences
between intelligence scores of different cultural
groups is a major controversy. - If intelligence is primarily determined by
heredity and largely fixed at birth, attempts to
alter intelligence will not be successful. - If intelligence is largely environmentally
determined, modifying social conditions is a
promising strategy for increasing intelligence.
81The Bell Curve Controversy
- Hernstein and Murray, in the book The Bell Curve
(1994), argue that IQ is primarily inherited
that ethnic differences in intelligence exist. - Most developmentalists disagree with The Bell
Curve. - Environmental factors rather than inherited
factors - Discriminatory/biased test questions
- Less important to know the degree of
intelligence related to genetic and environmental
factors and more important to improve conditions
and experiences so that all children can reach
their full potential.
82Below Intelligence Test Norms Mental Retardation
- MENTAL RETARDATION, defined as a significantly
subaverage level of intellectual functioning that
occurs with related limitations in two or more
skill areas, is found in approximately 1 to 3
percent of the school-age population. - Mentally retardation is typically measured by IQ
tests.
83(Mental Retardation, continued)
- 90 percent are classified as MILD RETARDATION,
where IQ is in the range of 50 or 55 to 70. - can reach 3rd to 6th grade level in school
- can hold jobs and function independently
84(Mental Retardation, continued)
- 5 to 10 percent are classified as MODERATE
RETARDATION, where IQ is from 35 or 40 to 50 or
55. - slow to develop language and motor skills
- generally cannot progress beyond 2nd grade
- capable of training and social skills but
typically need supervision
85(Mental Retardation, continued)
- Those with SEVERE RETARDATION, IQs ranging from
20 or 25 to 35 or 40, and PROFOUND RETARDATION,
where IQ is below 20 or 25 are the most limited. - no speech
- poor motor control
- need 24-hour care
86Above Intelligence Test Norms The
Intellectually Gifted
- 3 to 5 of school-age children are GIFTED AND
TALENTED, who show evidence of high performance
capability in areas such as intellectual,
creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or
specific academic fields. - Contrary to stereotypes, research shows that
highly intelligent people also tend to be
outgoing, well adjusted, and popular
87Above Intelligence Test Norms, continued
- ? Two approaches to educating the gifted and
talented exist. - ACCELERATION, where special programs allow gifted
students to move ahead at their own pace, even if
this means skipping to higher grade levels. - ENRICHMENT is an approach through which students
are kept at grade level but are enrolled in
special programs and given individual activities
to allow greater depth of study in a given topic.
88Mainstreaming Ending Segregation by Intelligence
Levels
- Public law 94-142 (the Education for all
Handicapped Children Act) requires that children
with special needs receive a full education in
the least restrictive environment (the setting
most similar to that of children without special
needs). - Supporters of mainstreaming point out that
special needs children must ultimately function
in a normal environment, and greater experience
with their peers will help with this
89- Full inclusion supporters want all students, no
matter how severe the disability, to be included
in regular classrooms. - Controversial!
- Some concern exists that these students may be
overlooked in a regular classroom environment
90- Childrens physical cognitive development
clearly continues in the middle childhood years. - Review Key terms
- Concepts,
- Keep up with your reading!