Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves

1
Environmental Conservation Forests,Grasslands,
Parks, and Nature Preserves

• Chapter 6

2
Outline

• Tropical Forests
• Temperate Forests
• Harvest Methods and Fire Management
• Rangelands
• Overgrazing and Land Degradation
• Parks and Nature Preserves
• History - Problems - Size and Design
• Wilderness Areas
• Wildlife Refuges

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WORLD FORESTS

• Forests play vital ecological roles
• Regulating climate, controlling water runoff,
  providing food and shelter for wildlife, and
  purifying air.
• Provide valuable materials.
• Wood, paper-pulp.
• Scenic, cultural, and historic value.

4
Forest Distribution

• Currently, forests (trees cover more than 10 of
  land) encompass 9.6 billion acres.
• Greatest concern is over protection of Old-Growth
  Forests.
• Areas that have been undisturbed by human
  activities long enough that trees can live out a
  natural life cycle.
• Only 25 of forests still retain old-growth
  characteristics.

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World Forests
6
Forest Products

• Wood plays a part in more activities of the
  modern economy than any other commodity.
• Total annual wood consumption is about 3.7
  billion metric tons.
• 100 Billion each year.
• Developed countries produce less than half of all
  industrial wood, but account for about 80 of
  consumption.

7
Forest Products

• US, former Soviet Union, and Canada are largest
  producers of industrial wood and paper pulp.
• Much of industrial logging in North America and
  Europe occurs in managed forests.
• More than half of the worlds population depends
  on firewood or charcoal as their main source of
  heating and cooking fuel.

8
Forest Management

• Approximately 25 of worlds forests are actively
  managed for wood production.
• Sustainable harvest is key to regeneration.
• Many reforestation projects involve Monoculture
  Forestry.
• Rapid growth and easier harvest.
• Disrupts ecological processes.

9
Tropical Forests

• Although they occupy less than 10 of earths
  land surface, tropical rainforests are thought to
  contain
• More than two-thirds of all higher plant biomass.
• At least one-half of all plant, animal, and
  microbial species in the world.

10
Diminishing Forests

• Tropical forest are shrinking rapidly.
• Estimated 0.6 of remaining forest is cleared
  annually.
• Estimates are very rough.
• Countries have economic and political reasons to
  hide extent of losses.
• Real losses may range 5-20 million ha annually.
• Brazil has largest rainforests, and highest rate
  of deforestation.

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Tropical Forest Losses
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Causes of Deforestation

• Thin, nutrient-poor tropical soils are usually
  worn out after a few years of cropping.
• Shifting cultivation often blamed for forest
  destruction.
• Can be sustainable where population densities are
  low and individual plots are allowed to
  regenerate between cultivation periods.

13
Debt-for-Nature Swaps

• Banks, governments, and lending institutions hold
  nearly 1 trillion in loans to developing
  countries.
• Conservation organizations buy debt obligations
  on the secondary market at a discount, and then
  offer to cancel the debt if the debtor country
  will agree to protect or restore an area of
  biological importance.

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Temperate Forests

• Northern countries have a long history of
  liquidating forest resources.
• For many years, multiple use was the official
  policy of the U.S. Forest Service.
• Simultaneous uses.
• Incompatibility ?

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Old-Growth Forests

• Today, less than 10 of the old-growth forest in
  the United States remains intact.
• 80 of what is left is scheduled to be cut down
  in the near future.
• Environmentalists sued U.S. Forest Service over
  logging rates in WA and OR in 1989.
• Protection of northern spotted owls.
• Timber industry claimed 40,000 jobs would be lost.

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Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest

• 500 year old forest in Western, N.C.

17
Longleaf Pine Old Growth Forest - Eglin Air
Force Base, Florida

• .preservation of the largest old growth
  longleaf pine forest in the United States 2,000
  acres, half the estimated 3,900 acres still in
  existence.

http//gorp.away.com/gorp/activity/wildlife/topten
_oldgrowth2.htm
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Harvest Methods

• Clear-Cutting - Every tree in a given area is cut
  regardless of size.
• Fast and efficient, but wastes small trees,
  increases erosion, and eliminates wildlife
  habitat.
• Shelterwood - Remove mature trees in series of
  cuts.

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Harvest Methods

• Strip Cutting - Harvesting all trees in a narrow
  corridor.
• Selective Cutting - A small percentage of mature
  trees are taken in 10-20 year rotation.
• Can retain many characteristics of mature,
  old-growth forests.

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Reforestation

• Most reforestation is done by monoculture
• After a clear cutting, the forest is replaced
  with one species such as slash or loblolly pine
  (SE)
• Any competing species are removed before the
  planting of pines
• This is a very efficient method because the trees
  grow fast and are easy to thin at 10 to 15 years
  old (allows for maximum yield)
• Harvest is relatively easy 40-50 years after
  planting
• Most of the harvests are used to make paper.

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Problems of Monocultured Forests

• Inherently unstable
• Prone to diseases and or insect infestations
  which spread rapidly through these forests.
• White pine blister rust is an invasive species
  and is lethal to these trees.
• Pines in Georgia and across the southeast are
  subject to attack by at least six species of bark
  beetles.
• http//www.barkbeetles.org/pbb/pbbpub.html
• http//www.colostate.edu/Depts/bspm/Jacobi20white
  20pine.PDFsearch'pine20fungus'

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Distribution of Pines in the SE
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Ants Monoculture Forests Too!

• "Devil's gardens are large stands of trees in the
  Amazonian rainforest that consist almost entirely
  of a single species, Duroia hirsuta, and,
  according to local legend, are cultivated by an
  evil forest spirit," write Frederickson and her
  colleagues in Nature. "Here we show that the ant,
  Myrmelachista schumanni, which nests in D.
  hirsuta stems, creates devil's gardens by
  poisoning all plants except its hosts with formic
  acid. By killing other plants, M. schumanni
  provides its colonies with abundant nest sitesa
  long-lasting benefit, as colonies can live for
  800 years."
• http//news-service.stanford.edu/news/2005/septemb
  er28/devil-092805.html

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A photo shot in Peru shows a devil's garden in
the foreground in sharp contrast with the
species-rich in vegetation the background.
25
Loggings and Roads in National Forests

• Increasing number of people in the U.S. are
  calling for an end to all logging on federal
  lands.
• 4 Billion annual harvest vs. estimated 224
  Billion from recreation and ecological function.
• USFS builds roads in order for timber companies
  to extract trees.
• Hidden subsidy to timber industry.

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Fire Management

• For more than 70 years, firefighting has been a
  high priority for forest managers.
• Many communities are fire-adapted.
• Accumulation of woody debris.
• Forest Service says 40 of all federal forest
  lands are at risk of severe fires.
• 68,230 fires burned 2.7 million ha in 2002.
• Firefighting costs of 1.6 Billion.
• How to undo years of fuel build-up ?

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Should Salvage be Allowed?

• After a fire or storm where there are many trees
  down, salvage operations are allowed on Federal
  lands.
• Is this good for the ecosystem and also
  profitable for loggers?
• Topic is controversial
• Recent study suggests log salvage is harmful to
  the environment
• Leaves too much debris and the operation kills
  young treescounter intuitive!

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Biscuit timber salvage loses money A study
cites a 14 million loss to the taxpayers and
other reasons that logging after fires is harmful

• Todays report comes on the heels of a study
  released last week which concluded that logging
  burned trees at the Biscuit fire site killed
  large numbers of seedlings that sprouted on their
  own and increased the short-term danger of
  wildfire. That study was led by an Oregon State
  University graduate student in forest science.
  Jan 2006

http//www.mailtribune.com/archive/2006/0111/local
/stories/07local.htm
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Ecosystem Management

• 1990s saw USFS shift from timber production to
  ecosystem management.
• Attempts to integrate sustainable ecological, and
  social goals in a unified, systems approach.

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RANGELANDS

• Pasture and Open range occupy about 25 of the
  worlds land surface.
• More than 3 billion domestic livestock producing
  meat and milk.
• Attractive and frequently converted to
  human-dominated landscapes.

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Range Management

• Pastoralists can adjust to environmental
  variations and resultant forage quality to keep
  livestock healthy and avoid overuse of any
  particular area.
• Desertification has recently accelerated by
  expanding programs and political conditions that
  force people to overuse fragile lands.

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Rangelands in the United States

• Overgrazing has allowed populations of
  unpalatable or inedible species to build up on
  both public and private rangelands.
• Grazing fees charged for use of public lands are
  often far below market value.
• Hidden subsidy to western ranchers.
• Permit holders generally pay less than 25 the
  amount of leasing comparable private lands.

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New Approaches to Ranching

• Short-Duration Rotational Grazing
• Forces livestock to graze equally, trample
  ground evenly, and fertilize with manure before
  moving on.
• Game Ranching
• Many wild species forage more efficiently, resist
  harsh climates, and can fend off predators and
  pests better than domestic livestock.

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More on Short-Duration Rotational Grazing

• Good results can be obtained, however
• Greater costs are incurred in fencing and water
• Management costs are higher
• Greater chance of parasitic infestations
• Therefore, some farmers and ranchers are
  reluctant to use this method.

http//www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/sheep/410-366/410-366.h
tml
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PARKS AND NATURE PRESERVES

• Origins and History
• Historically, sacred groves were set aside for
  religious purposes, and grounds preserved for
  royalty.
• Only in the past 130 years have we begun to
  preserve wild places for the sake of wildlife and
  scenic beauty.

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Yellowstone

• First US area set aside to protect wild nature.
• Authorized by President Abraham Lincoln.
• Designated the first National Park by President
  Ulysses S. Grant in 1872.
• Also first National Park in the world.

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North American Parks

• US national park system has grown to 280,000 km2
  in 376 parks, monuments, historic sites and
  recreation areas.
• 300 million visitors annually.
• Canada has 1,471 protected areas occupying about
  150,000 km2.

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Park Problems

• Many parks have become islands of nature
  surrounded and threatened by destructive land
  uses stemming from growing human populations
  crowding park boundaries.
• Park rangers often spend more time on crime
  prevention and crowd control than natural
  history.
• Mining and oil interests push to operate on
  private inholdings.

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Wildlife Issues

• Historically, parks killed bad animals (wolves)
  in favor of good animals (elk).
• Critics contend this policy unbalanced
  ecosystems, and created a false illusion of a
  natural system.
• Excessively large ungulate populations in may
  parks have degraded the range such that massive
  die-offs occurred in severe winters.

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Federal Parks in the Atlanta Region

• Kennesaw National Battlefield
• The name Kennesaw is derived from the Cherokee
  Indian "Gah-nee-sah" meaning cemetery or burial
  ground. Kennesaw Mountain Battlefield is a 2,888
  acre National Battlefield that preserves a Civil
  War battleground of the Atlanta Campaign. The
  battle was fought here from June 18, 1864 until
  July 2, 1864. Sherman's army consisted of 100,000
  men, 254 guns and 35,000 horses. Johnston's army
  had 63,000 men and 187 guns. Over 67,000 soldiers
  were killed, wounded and captured during the
  Campaign. The name Kennesaw is derived from the
  Cherokee Indian "

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K.N.B.P. is a Great Birding Sitehttp//www.nps.go
v/kemo/

• hike some of the 18 miles of interpretive
  trails bring your binoculars and go bird
  watching
• Its relatively undisturbed ecosystem provides
  shelter for many native birds and migrates.

Wild Turkey
Cerulean Warbler
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The Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area

• . Its a rare occasion when within the city
  limits of one of our major cities, one can find
  pure water and trout and free canoeing and rapids
  and the seclusion of the Earth the way God made
  it. But the Chattahoochee River is this kind of
  place.
• President Jimmy CarterAugust 15, 1978

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The Chattahoochee River National Recreation
Areahttp//www.nps.gov/chat/pphtml/subanimals4.ht
ml

• The Chattahoochee River is the southernmost
  trout river in the United States. Buford Dam, at
  Lake Lanier, releases cold water from the bottom
  of the lake making the habitat conducive for
  trout. The Georgia Department of Natural
  Resources stocks the river with brown, rainbow
  and brook trout (48 river miles)

Brook Trout
Fly fisherman at the Palisades. Julie Burroughs
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Martin Luther King National Historic Site
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Parks as Ecosystems

• One of the biggest problems with managing parks
  and nature preserves is that boundaries are often
  based on politics rather than ecological
  considerations.
• Airsheds, watersheds, and animal territories and
  migration routes often extend far beyond official
  boundaries.
• Biogeographical area must be managed as a unit.

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Chattahoochee National Forest

• Multiple use concept
• Forest products
• Watershed
• management
• Recreational uses
• Including Wilderness
• Experience

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Cohutta Wilderness Area http//www.conasaugariver
.net/resource/wilderns.html

• 1976, 36,000 acres were deemed wilderness. Since
  that time more wilderness area has been added.

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WORLD PARKS AND PRESERVES

• In many cultures wilderness and wild lands are
  regarded as useless wastelands.
• Many preserves are too small to maintain
  significant biological populations over the long
  term.
• Currently about 300 biosphere reserves have been
  designated in 75 countries.

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Marine Preserves

• Shelter marine organisms from destructive harvest
  methods.
• Coral reefs among most threatened marine
  ecosystems.
• 90 face threats from sea temperature change,
  destructive fishing methods, coral mining,
  sediment runoff and other human disturbance.

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Size and Design of Nature Preserves

• Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS)
• Ideally, a reserve should be large enough to
  support viable populations of endangered species,
  keep ecosystems intact, and isolate critical core
  areas from external forces.

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Size and Design of Nature Preserves

• Spectrum of Preserves
• Recreation Areas
• Historic Areas
• Conservation Reserves
• Pristine Research Areas
• Inviolable Preserves

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Size and Design of Nature Preserves

• For some species with small territories, several
  small isolated refuges can support viable
  populations.
• But cannot support species requiring large
  amounts of space.
• Corridors of natural habitat to allow movement of
  species from one area to another can help
  maintain genetic exchange in fragmented areas.

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Conservation and Economic Development

• Tropics are suffering the greatest destruction
  and species loss in the world.
• Ecotourism can be more beneficial to many
  countries over the long-term than extractive
  industries.
• Wildlife watching and outdoor recreation can be a
  welcome source of income for underdeveloped
  countries.

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Indigenous Communities and Reserves

• Areas chosen for nature preservation are often
  traditional lands of indigenous people.
• 1986 UNESCO initiated its Man and Biosphere
  Program (MAB).
• Encourages division of protected areas into zones
  with different purposes.

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WILDERNESS AREAS

• A belief that wilderness is a source of wealth
  and the origin of strength, self-reliance,
  wisdom, and character, is deeply embedded in our
  culture.
• 1964 - Wilderness Act defined wilderness
• An area of undeveloped land affected primarily
  by the forces of nature, where man is a visitor
  who does not remain
• Most areas meeting these standards are in the
  Western US and Alaska.

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Wilderness Areas

• Arguments for preservation
• Refuge for endangered wildlife.
• Solitude and primitive recreation.
• Baseline for ecological research.
• Area left in natural state.
• For many people in developing countries, the idea
  of pristine wilderness is neither important or
  interesting.

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WILDLIFE REFUGES

• 1901 - President Teddy Roosevelt established 51
  national wildlife refuges.
• Now 511 refuges encompassing 40 million ha
  representing every major biome in NA.

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Wildlife Refuges

• Over the years, a number of other uses have been
  allowed to operate within wildlife refuge
  boundaries.
• Oil and Gas Drilling
• Cattle Grazing
• Motor-boating, Camping
• Refuges also face threats from external sources -
  expanding human populations.
• Water Pollution

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Summary

• Tropical Forests
• Temperate Forests
• Harvest Methods and Fire Management
• Rangelands
• Overgrazing and Land Degradation
• Parks and Nature Preserves
• History - Problems - Size and Design
• Wilderness Areas
• Wildlife Refuges

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