II. Essays

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II. Essays

• four types of writing description,
• narration,
• exposition, and argumentation.

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1. Description

• a snapshot of a person, place, object, or scene
• developed through sensory details, or the
  impressions of ones senses sight, hearing,
  taste, smell, and touch 

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(1) Description of a persongive details of his
appearance

• try to reveal the persons character, thoughts,
  and feelings, which may be shown in what the
  person does and says, or in how he behaves to
  others.
• to grasp the characteristic features that
  distinguish him from all other people.
• omit those features that he shares with others

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(2)    Description of a place

• for the description of the place
• for the purpose of revealing the personality and
  character of a person,
• creating a feeling or mood.
• e.g A clean and tidy room might show that the
  occupant is an orderly person.
• The howling of a chilly wind, the falling of
  autumn leaves, a house standing in solitude on a
  barren mountain, all help to build up a somber
  mood and increase the feeling of depression.

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(3)    Description of an object

• use our senses, because we need to mention its
  size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell.
• tell how it is used if it is useful, and what
  part it plays in a persons life
• emphasize on only one aspect of the abject,
  probably its most important characteristic

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(4)    Description of a scene

• the main part of an essay, and
• sometimes only an episode in a long narrative.
• describe the scene of some natural phenomenon. 
• consists of three basic factors the setting, the
  people, and the actions.

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Note

• try to create a dominant impression when
  describing a scene.
• make up our mind as to what effect we want the
  description to achieve. (This will help him to
  decide which details to delete and which to
  include.)

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Points to be considered

• points of view
• choose the order and details
• record the most distinctive features and details
• choose proper modifierswords that specify shape,
  size, color, smell, and so on.
• physical and psychological description  

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Compare the following

• a nice man
• a patient father, an affectionate husband, a
  hard-working volunteer
• a good report
• a well-documented, coherent, and carefully
  written proposal
• a fine day
• a sunny day with temperatures in the low 20s

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Concrete description

• e.g.
• livestock
• cattle, sheep, goats, or pigs 

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Physical description

• add great interest to an essay.
• Readers like to use their sense in understanding
  what the author says. They like for the author to
  tell them how the subject looks, feels, smells,
  sounds, and even tastes.

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Psychological description

• give some insight into the narrators
  psychological state.  

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e.g.

• We can describe something that have some meaning
  to us and add a second paragraph.
• In the first paragraph, we give a physical
  description of the object which appeal to all the
  sense.
• In the second paragraph, explain how this object
  make you feel. Tell why it is important to us.
  How do we respond to it? How do we feel when we
  see, feel, touch, or smell it? What does it
  remind us of? What is the source of its meaning
  to us?

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To prepare for psychological description

• examine the object again.
• begin brainstorming
• writing down all our emotions, thoughts, and
  memories as we look at the object.
• go back over the list and cross out things that
  are not so important.
• look for some way to organize the material.  

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2. Narration

• give an account of an event or a series of
  events.
• stories, real or imaginary, biographies,
  histories, news items, and narrative poems. 

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Narration

• hand in hand with description
• When one tells a story, one describes its setting
  and characters.
• On the other band, accounts of actions may be
  necessary to the description of a person or a
  scene.

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Five aspects to be considered

• Context
• selection of details
• Organization
• point of view
• purpose.

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(1)    Context

• When, where, and to whom the action in a
  narrative happened is often made clear at the
  beginning of the narrative.
• This will provide the reader with a context, or
  circumstances, to help him understand the whole
  narrative. 

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(2)    Selection of details

• A narrative is made up of details.
• There should be enough details so that the
  reader knows what is happening, but there should
  not be too many of them, or the reader will be
  confused and lose interest in the story.
• Only relevant details, or things that contribute
  to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative,
  are useful and effective.

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 (3)    Organization

• Events in a narrative are usually related in
  chronological order.
• It is also possible to start from the middle or
  even the end of the story with the event that is
  most important or most likely to arouse the
  readers interest, and then go back to the
  beginning by using flashbacks.

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• A narrative generally has a beginning, middle,
  and an end.
• The setting may be given in the beginning.
• The middle (the body) tells the story itself.
• When the story is clearly told, the narrative
  comes to a natural end then there is no need for
  a superfluous concluding paragraph.
• But sometimes if may be necessary to add one or
  two paragraphs about the significance of the
  story or about things that happen afterwards. 

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(4)    Point of view

• A story can be told either in the first person or
  in the third person, each having its advantages
  and disadvantages.
• A first-person narrative may be more graphic and
  lifelike, But the scope of the narrative may be
  limited, for it is difficult to recount events
  that happen in different places at the same time.
  
• A third-person narrative is free from this
  limitation, and it may seem more objective, but
  it is not easy to put in good order things that
  happen to different people in different places. 

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(5)    Purpose

• There must be a purpose in telling a story.
• to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to
  praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc.
• We should make sure that the total effect of our
  narrative, or the final impression it leaves on
  the reader, is in agreement with his purpose.
• To achieve this, we have to choose details and
  design the plot of our story carefully.

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Note

• A narrative usually contains a plot which usually
  includes a problem, a point at which a decision
  must be made, and a solution to the problem which
  results from the decision.
• More technically a plot includes a conflict, a
  climax, and a resolution.
• Plots are most commonly told in chronological
  order that is they are arranged according to
  real time as they actually happened.
• It is good to have both physical and
  psychological narration,

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3. Exposition

• Exposition means expounding or explaining.
• An expository paper explains or explores
  something, such as the process of making a
  machine, the causes of a natural or social
  phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the
  solution of a problem.

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• Description mainly deals with appearances and
  feelings,
• Narration mainly deals with events and
  experiences.
• Exposition mainly deals with processes and
  relationships.

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• We are writing a descriptive essay when we
  describe the appearance of an object
• but we are writing an expository essay when we
  explain how it is made, how it is used, and how
  it may change.
• When we narrate a historical event, we tell what
  happened, when and where it happened, and who
  took part in it.

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In an expository paper,

• we discuss its cause and effect,
• its nature, and
• its significance and history.

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Things can be explained by

• illustration,
• process,
• classification and division,
• comparison and contrast,
• an analysis of their causes and effects, or
• definition.

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The difference between paragraphs and essays lies
in scope and proportion.

• In a paragraph a point is often made in one or
  two sentences in an essay it may take one or two
  paragraphs to make a point clear.

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The most important quality of exposition is
clarity. To achieve this the writer should

• 1) Limit his subject or the scope of discussion.
• 2) Prepare enough material (details or examples).
  3) Present the facts and views in proper order,
  in the order of time or of logical sequence
  depending on the nature of the subject.4)Pay
  attention to the accuracy and clarity of words
  and sentences.5)Make our exposition, if
  possible, interesting or moving. 

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(1) illustration

• specific and typical, interesting and relevant
  the examples
• examples arranged climactically

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(2) Division and classification

• Division is used to deal with one thing.
• Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts.
• For example, a pair of glasses can be divided
  into the frame and the lens.
• Classification is used to organize things which
  share certain qualities.
• Its purpose is to group these things
  systematically.
• For example, course in college can be classified
  into elective and required or into these
  taught in the native language and those offered
  in foreign languages.

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Division and classification are useful
organizational strategies in writing.

• The former stresses the distinction between
  things, whereas the latter emphasis the
  similarities.
• The two methods can be used separately, but they
  often go together.
• Division deals with the whole and classification,
  the parts.
• The whole is composed of parts, and parts make up
  the whole the whole and the parts are closely
  related.

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Note

• 1) Choose and appropriate principle of division /
  classification suited to your purpose.
• 2) Apply your principle consistently and
  thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.
• At the conference were delegates from every
  continent of the world-- Asia, Europe, Africa,
  North America, and South America.
• It is often difficult, even impossible, to be
  thorough, and unnecessary to be all-inclusive.
  You may use such words as and other or etc.
  to show you are aware that your division/
  classification is not complete, but you do not
  intend to be exhaustive.

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(3) Comparison and contrast

• When we write a comparison / contrast paper, we
  explain or clarify for one of the three following
  purposes
• 1)To present information about something
  unfamiliar by comparing it with something
  familiar2)To show the superiority of one thing
  by comparing it with another and3)To show the
  reader of the similarities and differences of two
  things to help the reader understand or evaluate
  them.

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A paper may deal

• entirely with similarities (comparisons) or
• with differences (contrasts).
• However, comparison and contrast often go
  together in an essay, perhaps with stress on one
  or the other.

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Note

• 1) Only items (usually two) of the same general
  class can be compared / contrasted
• Generally, comparisons are made between two
  seemingly different items, and contrasts, between
  two seemingly similar items.
• A good comparison/ contrast essay tells the
  reader not the obvious but the significant
  similarities and differences which people may
  neglect or overlook.

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• 2) A comparison /contrast essay usually follows
  one of these two patterns the subject-by-subject
  pattern or the point-by-point pattern.
• the subject-by-subject pattern,
• Thesis statement X is a better school than Y.I.
  XA. Student bodyB. Teaching
  staffC. Library and other facilitiesD. CampusII
  . YA. Student bodyB. Teaching staffC. Library
  and other facilitiesD. Campus

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• the point-to-point pattern
• I. Student bodyA. XB. YII Teaching
  staffA. XB. YIII. Library and other
  facilitiesA. XB. YIV CampusA. XB. Y

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• The subject-by-subject pattern works better in
  short essays where few aspects are considered, or
  where the writers interest in the whole.
• The point-by-point pattern is preferable in long
  essays where many aspects are mentioned, for a
  long discussion of the various aspects of one
  item puts too much burden on the readers memory.
  
• However, a paper may use both patterns.

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• 3) The comparison /contrast should be balanced.
• The two items being compared /contrasted are to
  be given equal treatment.
• Some transitions used in comparison are both,
  each, at the same time, similarly, like,
  likewise, as, took, also, and compared with.
• Some transitions used in contrast are on the
  other hand, on the contrary, kin contrast (with/
  to), instead (of), the opposite (of), unlike,
  although, while, whereas, but, however, yet, and
  nevertheless.

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• 4) The comparison /contrast should be supported
  by concrete and relevant facts.
• 5) When we compare/contrast two items, we must
  have a purpose in mind, which is actually the
  thesis.
• We may intend to show that X is better or no
  better than Y, X is as useful as Y, or though X
  is different from Y, both are good or necessary.

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(4) Cause and effect

• When we write a cause effect paper, we are
  actually making a causal analysis.
• Two questions should be answered in a causal
  analysis1) What is the cause of something that
  has happened?2) What effect will follow if
  something has happened?
• In other words, a cause deals with the question
  Why? and an effect, the question What if? In
  answering the first question we reason from
  effect backward to cause, and in answering the
  second, from cause forward to effect.

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• Sometimes, a paper may contain bother the causes
  and the effects of something
• For example, in analyzing Chinas single-child
  policy, the writer may begin with the causes,
  explaining why the policy is adopted, and then
  discuss the effects of this policy.

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Note

• 1) Don not over-simplify causes.
• If the student ascribes his failure to having
  gone to a party, he is over simplifying the
  cause.
• 2) Beware especially of making a mistake in logic
  known as the fallacy of post hoc, ergo propter
  hocLatin words meaning after this therefore
  because of this.
• For instance, if a disease broke out soon after
  X became Minister of Public Health, we would have
  made a mistake in logic in saying that the
  epidemic broke out because X was made minister.
  Remember sequence is not always causation.

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• 3) Distinguish between direct and indirect causes
  and effects and between major and minor causes
  and effects.
• Since an effect may have several causes and a
  cause, several effects, it is important that your
  paper should not treat all causes and effects
  equally but give more space to major ones.

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• 4) Do not omit links in a chain of causes and
  effects.
• Very often an effect is brought about by a chain
  of causes, one leading to another. If you fail to
  discuss explicitly each part of the sequence, you
  will not be able to convince the reader. It is
  like a doctor telling Patient Xs relatives that
  X died from a cold, instead of explaining that
  the cold had resulted in pneumonia, which in turn
  brought about the fatal effect on the patients
  weak heart.
• 5) Be objective and support the analysis with
  solid, factual evidence.

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(5) Definition

• There are two main types of definition logical
  or formal, and extended or informal.
• The logical or formal definition is the
  dictionary definition which is rigid in form. It
  is often used in clarifying meanings of concrete
  or no controversial termed.
• When ideals, concepts, or emotions are discussed,
  they can be explained satisfactorily only by
  extended or informal definitions.The extended or
  informal definition is not rigid in form and is
  extended.

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Definition papers consist mostly of extended or
informal definitions.

• Note
• 1) A definition paper discusses abstract terms
  such as liberty, equality, beauty, love,
  socialism, etc., the denotative and especially
  connotative meanings of which are often different
  to different people.

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• 2) A definition paper answers fully, though often
  implicitly, the question What is?
• It presents the essential nature and the
  qualities of the discussed subject and
• shows how it is different from others like it and
  
• often explains why we need to know about it.
• It usually turns out to be an expression of
  opinion or attitude, and
• it is this expression of opinion or attitude that
  gives life to a definition paper and makes it
  more interesting and enlightening to read than a
  dictionary.

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3) Definition papers follow no set pattern.

• Some use description or one of the expository
  patterns, but most are combinations of several
  expository patterns.

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4) A definition paper may be either deductive or
inductive.

• The deductive essay begins with a definition
  which is followed by other expository patterns
• the inductive essay reaches the definition after
  employing any of the other methods of
  development.
• The final part of the essay is often a
  restatement, in which the essentials of the
  definition assumed up or reinforced.

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Argumentation

• The purpose of exposition is to inform the
  purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is
  to convince.
• While an expository paper makes something known
  and explains it to make the reader understand, an
  argumentative essay tries to make the reader
  agree with its point of view and support it, to
  persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and
  to approve a policy or a course of action that it
  proposes.

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• Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers,
  articles on political or theoretical questions,
  and various proposals are often argumentative.
• Argumentation makes use of the other three types
  of writingdescription, narration, and
  exposition,for argumentation and exposition are
  very closely related argumentation is actually
  exposition with the additional purpose of
  convincing or persuading.

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Note

• (1) A debatable point
• 1) Mere statements of facts.Chinese doctors use
  acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain
  operationsAcupuncture anesthesia should replace
  conventional anesthesia in all operations.
• 2) Statements of personal preferenceBa Jin is my
  favorite author.Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese
  writer of 20th century
• 3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can
  be easily verifiedNoise pollution is harmful to
  peoples health.
• Noise pollution is the most harmful of all
  environmental pollution.

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• The following topic ?
• Education is very important to Chinese.
• Womens education is very important to Chinese.

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• (2) Sufficient evidenceSufficient evidence
  includes common knowledge specific examples
  hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions,
  unless the opinions are expert and authoritative
  statistics and quotations from authorities.
• (3) Good logic
• All the facts and reasons that are given, as
  evidence should be logically connected with the
  conclusion and with each other.
• Any fallacy illogic or wrong step in reasoning
  would leave the reader in doubt about the whole
  argument.

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There are generally two ways of
reasoning1)Inductive reasoning Inductive
reasoning is the more common way. When we use
induction, we start with facts and proceed from
facts to a general conclusion. In other words, we
move from specific examples to a general
statement.2)Deductive reasoning The process
is just the opposite
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• (4) Clear logic(5) Good use of the other three
  types of writingdescription, narration, and
  especially the various methods of
  exposition(6) An honest and friendly attitude

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Practice make an argumentation on the following
topic

• ???????
• ??????
• ???????
• ???????
• ?????????
• ?????????

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Model 1

• Some people believe (argue, recognize,
  think) that . But other people take an opposite
  side. They firmly believe that . As for me, I
  agree to the former/latter idea.
• There are a dozen of reasons behind my
  belief. First of all, . More importantly, .Most
  important of all, .
• In summary, . As a college student, I am
  supposed to ./ From above, we can predict that
  .

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Model 2

• People hold different views about X. Some people
  are of the opinion that , while others point out
  that . As far as I am concerned, the
  former/latter opinion holds more weight.
• For one thing, . For another, . Last but not
  the least, .
• To conclude, . As a college student, I am
  supposed to . / From above, we can predict that
  .

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Model 3

• There is no consensus of opinions among people
  about X?Some people are of the view that ,while
  others take an opposite side, firmly believing
  that ?As far as I am concerned, the
  former/latter notion is preferable in many
  senses. The reasons are obvious.
• First of all, ? Furthermore, ? Among all of
  the supporting evidences, one is the strongest.
  That is, ?
• A natural conclusion from the above discussion
  is that?
• As a college student, I am supposed to . / From
  above, we can predict that .

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Exercise

• It is reported in the press some time ago that
  few second-and third-year students in a
  provincial university decided to try their hands
  at business in order to get prepared for the
  future.they opened six small shops near their
  university.their teachers and classmates had
  different opinions about this phenomenon.some
  thought that the studentsbusiness experience
  would help them adapt better to society after
  graduation,while others held a negative
  view,saying that running shops might occupy too
  much of the students time and energy which
  should otherwise be devoted to their academic
  study.what do you think?write a composition of
  300 words on the following topic

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• Should university students go in for business?

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N.B.

• 1.the main parts of a paragraph includes three
  parts
• i) the topic sentence
• ii) supporting sentences
• iii) concluding sentences
• Note concluding sentences may be omitted if the
  paragraph is a short one.

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• 2.Most often essay or paper is made up of three
  parts
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion

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• The introduction is the first paragraph of the
  paper. It often begins with a general statement
  about the topic and ends with a more specific
  statement of the main idea of your paper. The
  purpose of the introduction is to
• let the reader know what the topic is
• inform the reader about your point of view
• arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she
  will want to read about your topic

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• 2.The body of the paper follows the introduction.
  It consists of a number of paragraphs in which
  you develop your ideas in detail.
• Limit each paragraph to one main idea. (Don't try
  to talk about more than one idea per paragraph.)
• Prove your points continually by using specific
  examples and quotations.
• Use transition words to ensure a smooth flow of
  ideas from paragraph to paragraph.

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• 3.The conclusion is the last paragraph of the
  paper. Its purpose is to
• summarize your main points, leaving out specific
  examples
• restate the main idea of the paper

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A. Types of outlines

• Thesis (controlling idea)
• I. Introduction
• II. Main idea
• A. Sub-idea
• B. Sub-idea
• 1. Supporting detail
• 2. Supporting detail
• a. Fact 1
• b. Fact 2
• III. Main idea
• A. Sub-idea
• B. Sub-idea
• 1. Supporting detail
• 2. Supporting detail
• 3. Supporting detail
• C. Sub-idea
• IV. Conclusion