Unit 3 Environmental Science Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere

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Unit 3 Environmental ScienceArea of Study 2
Diversity in the Biosphere
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Overview of presentation

• How to prepare for the exam
• The format of the midyear exam
• How to respond in the mid-year exam
• Content to cover for Area of Study 2 Diversity
  in the Biosphere

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How to prepare for the midyear exam

• Summarise notes
• study design
• text
• class notes
• SACs
• Age article http//education.theage.com.au/cmspag
  e.php?intid154intversion63
• glossary of terms
• Past exam papers 2005 onwards
• VAEE trial exams
• Prepare what to take to exam pen, grey lead
  pencils, eraser, pens, scientific calculator

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Term Definition
Analyse Break down something to its components and work out how it operates
Assess Make a judgement about or measure an outcome or value
Classify Place in an appropriate category/group
Compare Describe the similarities and differences
Contrast Describe the differences
Define State the meaning or identify the essential qualities of a term
Demonstrate Show by using examples
Describe Give an account of what something is like
Discuss Examine something by sifting through the information, showing both sides of an argument/issue or the advantages and disadvantages of a particular solution
Evaluate Judge something - weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of something, or measure its value or worth judge whether, on balance, there are more pros or cons
Examine Similar to discuss sift through the issue and describe the different sides of an issue in some detail
Explain Provide a reason why/how something is as it is
Identify Briefly name or state the feature, factor or component
Interpret Translate the meaning or implications within data or text
Outline Summarize the main points/elements
Predict Suggest what may happen in a given scenario/situation
Quantify Use a numerical measure
Recommend State what you think is the best option/alternative in a given situation
State A brief answer in response to a given situation
Suggest Present an hypothesis or make a proposition
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The format of the midyear exam

• The exam totals 90 marks.
• There will be a Question and Answer Book
  consisting of two sections Section A is the
  multiple choice section and is worth 20/90 marks,
  and Section B has short answer questions and is
  worth 70/90 of the marks.
• There is a separate answer sheet for the multiple
  choice questions .
•  The mid-year examination will contribute 33 to
  the Study Score for Unit 3 Unit 3 SACs
  contribute 17.
• No marks are deducted for wrong answers.
•  

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How to respond in the midyear exam

• Use the reading time to read through the
  questions carefully and have a good look at the
  data provided.
• Read the question carefully all the way through
• Stop and think before you write - plan
• Tailor your response to the scenario that has
  been posed refer to details of this scenario in
  your response
• Ensure you have met all the requirements of the
  question
• Be concise use dot points and do not rewrite the
  question
• Show all your workings for questions that require
  calculations
• If you are asked to give a specific number of
  responses, give the number requested
• If you are asked to evaluate or give an opinion,
  be decisive
• Back up your contention with facts and figures
• Watch the time 90 marks in 90 minutes

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms
  plants, animals and microorganisms in a
  particular area, country, ecosystem or on Earth.
• It includes the variety of species, the variety
  within species, and the variety of different
  habitats and ecosystems within a region.

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Biodiversity
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Biodiversity

• The diversity of species on earth has changed
  over time.
• New species have evolved in response to changes
  in the environment and some species have become
  extinct.

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Biodiversity

• Evolution, migration and extinctions have
  occurred throughout time.

The rate of species loss has increased in
historic times, a phenomenon known as accelerated
extinction. Current rates of loss are 100 1000
times the historic background levels. (UN
meeting on Convention on Biological Diversity,
2010)
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Processes that allow evolutionary change

• mutation
• migration
• natural selectionSelection for a particular,
  advantageous trait, which then affects the genes
  passed onto the next generation
• genetic drift
• Random events, that affect the proportion of
  individuals with a particular trait passing on
  their genes to the next generation, is known as
  genetic drift.

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Species and population

• A species is the most definitive classification
  level or taxon (or group of organisms) that are
  genetically so similar that they can interbreed
  and reproduce fertile offspring.
• A population is a group of individuals of a
  particular species which share a particular
  habitat in a particular area.

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Habitat and range
A habitat is the type of environment the taxon is
adapted to. It may be an area with a very
specific environment, or the taxon may have a
very general habitat.
A range is the location of its geographic area of
habitat inhabited by a taxon. It may be
continuous, or populations of the species may be
isolated or separate but interacting, so forming
a metapopulation. A small area of native
vegetation is deemed a remnant.
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A population

• Where populations are isolated from each other,
  there is no gene flow between the two
  populations.
• Over time, the genotype of different populations
  diverge and they may eventually form a subspecies
  or a new species.

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An ecosystem

• An ecosystem is a community of interdependent
  species of plants, animals and microorganisms
  (the biotic component) occupying a certain area,
  together with the soil and other abiotic
  components of the environment.

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An ecosystem

The diversity of abiotic features on Earth has
lead to the development of many different types
of ecosystem. Within each ecosystem is a
diversity of habitats.
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An ecosystem

• Within an ecosystem there is a complex web of
  relationships between different species and with
  their physical environment.
• Each species has its particular niche.
• A community is a set of populations of plants
  and animals living and closely interacting in a
  common habitat over a shared range.

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An ecosystem

• A trophic level consists of all the species of
  that ecosystem that compete for food.

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An ecosystem

• Relationships between individuals of different
  species can be
• competition
• predation
• symbiosis live together on an intimate
  relationship
• - parasitism parasite benefits, but
  detrimental to the host
• - commensalism one benefits other no harm or
  benefit
• - mutualism both benefit

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The sea anemone benefits from the clownfish
because it can feed on scraps of food left by the
clownfish. The clownfish benefits by being
protected from predators by the stinging cells in
the anemones tentacles. The mucus coating on the
clown fishs skin contains a chemical inhibitor
that prevents the discharge of stinging cells in
the tentacles
mutualism
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• The small remora fish scavenges on leftover bits
  of food after the reef shark has fed. The shark
  is neither helped nor harmed by the presence of
  these fish

commensalism
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• The host is a reef fish. The tick-like creatures
  called isopods attach to the hosts skin and
  gills and obtain their nutrients from the fishs
  blood. A isopods only survive while they are
  attached to the reef fish or until the reef fish
  dies

parasitism
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Types of biodiversity

• There are three types of biodiversity
• species diversity
• genetic diversity
• ecosystem diversity

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Species diversity
Species diversity is the variety of species in a
particular ecosystem or area. Species diversity
is the number of species in an area, that is the
species richness, and the abundance of each
species.

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Species diversity

• Rarity
• Three components can contribute to the rarity of
  a species
• very low population density or small population
  size
• restricted geographic range
• a highly specific habitat requires a narrow set
  of ecological requirements to survive
• A species only needs to display one of these
  characteristics to be considered rare.
• Endemism
• Endemic species are restricted to one particular
  location.
• Regions of the world with particularly high
  levels of biodiversity are called biodiversity
  hot spots.

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Genetic diversity

• Genetic diversity is the range of genetic
  material contained in the alleles of a taxon or
  ecosystem. It usually refers to variation in
  genetic information between individuals of the
  same population or species, but can also be used
  to refer to the genetic diversity between related
  species.
• Because it is difficult to measure the genetic
  variation of a taxon, appearance (phenotype)
  rather than their genes (genotype) is often used
  to measure genetic diversity.

• These happy face spiders (Theridion grallator)
  look different, but since they can interbreed
  they are considered the same species.

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Genetic diversity

• Genetic diversity plays an important role in
  adaptability and survival of a population or
  species. Populations that have very little
  genetic variation are at a great risk.
• The sources of genetic variation are
• mutations
• variations in habitat eg a mosaic of different
  aged vegetation.
• gene flow the movement of genes from one
  population to another.
• sexual reproduction this
• genetic shuffling is an important source
• of genetic variation.

• 
  

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Ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of
different habitats and ecosystems within a given
area.
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2010 exam

• Q.14
• The Southern Bent-wing Bat roosts and breeds
  only in caves and mineshafts in southeastern
  South Australia and southwestern Victoria.
• This means that the species
• a. has a wide variety of habitats.
• b. is at risk of genetic swamping.
• c. is endemic to this region of Australia.
• d. needs demographic variation to occur to
  maintain population size.

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Importance of preserving biodiversity

• Benefits for humans
• biological resource
• ecosystem services
• social benefits

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Importance of preserving biodiversity

• A species may be a potential biological resource
  in the future or for future generations, such as
  for
• food
• medicines and pharmaceuticals
• fibres or other materials
• ornamental plants and pets
• breeding stock for use in agriculture.

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Biological resources

• Rubber is from the latex tree, linen from flax,
  rope from hemp, cotton from cotton, wool from
  sheep and goats, silk from silkworms. Honey,
  beeswax, rattan, wicker, bamboo, timber,
  perfumes, spices and herbs are all from plants
  and animals

• Approximately 20 of prescription drugs are
  derived from plants.
• The venom of certain snakes is the basis for
  substances which enables blood clots to form

Wheat, maize and rice supply one half of the
worlds food, and 90 of the world's food is
derived from only 15 species of plants out of
80,000 potentially edible plants
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Ecosystem services

• Ecosystem services ecosystems provide humans
  with many natural services including
• energy transfers
• waste treatment
• clean air and water
• climate stability
• soil formation and maintenance
• pollination or seed dispersal
• natural predators of pest species
• the cycling of nutrients, minerals and gases.

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Ecosystem services
Leguminous plants, such as clover, lupines and
alfalfa, have a symbiotic relationship with
Rhizobia bacteria in the nodules in their root
systems. This allows these plants to fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and release this
essential element to other plants when it dies
and decays in the soil.
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Social benefits of biodiversity

• Social benefits educational, scientific,
  cultural, spiritual, aesthetic, tourist and
  recreational value.

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Social benefits of biodiversity
Many native species are a part of our cultural
heritage and an important source of tourism.
Tourism from the Great Barrier Reef contributes
over 800 million per annum, which is additional
to its value for commercial fisheries.
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Benefits of biodiversity to humans

• Estimates of various benefits of biodiversity to
  humans (US trillion)
• Soil formation 17.1
• Recreation 3.0
• Nutrient cycling 2.3
• Water regulation and supply 2.3
• Climate regulation (temperature and
  precipitation) 1.8
• Habitat 1.4
• Flood and storm protection 1.1
• Food and raw materials production 0.8
• Genetic resources 0.8
• Atmospheric gas balance 0.7
• Pollination 0.4
• All other services 1.6
• Total value of biodiversity benefits to humans
  US 33.3 trillion
• source Adapted from R. Costanza et al., The
  Value of the Worlds Ecosystem Services and
  Natural Capital, Nature, Vol. 387 (1997), p.
  256.

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2008 exam

• Q 5e
• Discuss the reasons for maintaining biodiversity
  in our world for human health and wellbeing.
  Include some examples in your answer. (4 marks)

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Threats to biodiversity

• Biodiversity can be reduced through
• habitat destruction or modification
• introduced species
• over-exploitation of biological resources
• economic and scientific threats to genetic
  diversity
• the flow-on effect of changes to other species
  within the ecosystem
• reduced population size

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Habitat destruction or modification

• Habitat destruction and modification may
  precipitates the loss of species which are form
  and depend upon that habitat
• habitat destruction resulting from clearing of
  natural habitat for agriculture, urbanisation or
  other landuse.
• degradation results from the deterioration of the
  quality of the habitat due to pollution, erosion,
  salinity or over-use.
• habitat change resulting from events such as
  change in fire regime, extreme weather events,
  tectonic activity and climate change.
• fragmentation of the habitat, where the clearance
  of pockets of vegetation leave a series of
  fragments of intact habitat. If the pockets of
  remnant vegetation are isolated and too small to
  support viable populations of species, or if the
  fragments are not connected, the impact can be
  significant.
• 
  

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Habitat destruction or modification
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• Deforestation and increased road-building in the
  Amazon rainforest are a significant concern
  because of increased human encroachment upon wild
  areas.

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Introduced species

• An introduced, or exotic species is one which
  has been deliberately or accidentally imported
  into a region.
• These species may become a pest or weed to
  indigenous species by
• occupying the same niche as an indigenous species
  within the ecosystem, competing for resources
  such as food or space
• preying on indigenous species within the
  ecosystem
• poisonous to indigenous species
• degrading or modifying the habitat to the
  detriment of the indigenous species.
  
  

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Over-exploitation of biological resources

• Over-exploitation results from harvesting
  biological resources at an unsustainable rate.
• Some examples of species which have been
  over-exploited include
• the deforestation of land in the Amazon forest
  for timber and agricultural land
• harvesting whales for their meat and oil
• slaughtering seals for their furs and oil
• hunting elephants and for the ivory in their
  tusks
• hunting rhinoceros for the use of their horn for
  to produce aphrodisiacs
• over-fishing of Atlantic salmon as a source of
  food
• felling the trees of Easter Island by the
  original inhabitants to transport their carved
  status to the coastline

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Economic and scientific threats to genetic
diversity

• The manipulation of species commonly used by
  humans through crop breeding, animal husbandry
  and genetic modification have developed
  domesticated species and hybrids which are quite
  different genetically from their original, wild
  ancestors, and has created a much narrower gene
  pool. This has lead to the loss of some genetic
  diversity and lowered resilience to threats, such
  as diseases, plagues and extreme weather events.
• Today, 80 of our food is sources from 20 kinds
  of plants worldwide, and much of our meat is
  sources from a few species of animal.
• eg the Irish potato famine of 1847, where the
  potato blight wiped out virtually all potato
  crops in Ireland, as they were bred from a very
  small number of ancestor plants (brought back
  from the Americas) that did not have resistance
  to this disease.

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The flow-on effect of changes to other species
within the ecosystem

• Because species within an ecosystem are
  interdependent, loss or weakening of one species
  can have a flow on effect upon the other species
  it interacts with.
• This could be the impact of the loss or
  weakening of a species which
• is a food source
• provides a vital component to the niche habitat
• assists with a plants pollination or seed
  dispersal
• is a predator, competitor or has a symbiotic
  relationship with the species.

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Reduced population size
Threats may not lead to the extinction of
species, but may significantly reduce population
size. This in itself becomes a threat as the
population becomes vulnerability to a cascade of
genetic, demographic and environmental factors.

• All the animals shown above suffer from low
  population size. Scientists estimate that about
  1000 Kemps Ridley sea turtles (left), 300 right
  whales (centre) and 65 northern hairy-nosed
  wombats (right) survive in the wild.

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Reduced population size

• Very small populations pose a number of dangers
• greater vulnerability to genetic drift
• inbreeding depression
• low genetic variation, because the gene pool is
  greatly reduced
• possibility of genetic swamping
• demographic variation

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Vulnerability to genetic drift

• Small populations are more susceptible to
  genetic drift, that is, that random chance events
  will reduce the frequency of particular alleles,
  which could be alleles for characteristics which
  confer an advantage to the next generation.

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Inbreeding depression

• In any population there may be alleles for a
  deleterious trait. In a large population, there
  is a low probability an individual will wind up
  with both alleles for the deleterious trait. In a
  small population, where mating between two
  individuals with similar genotype is inevitable,
  there is a greater chance an individual will have
  two alleles for such a trait, and that that
  disadvantageous trait will be expressed.
• Inbreeding over a number of generations can lead
  to the genetic weakening of the population at a
  whole, a phenomenon called inbreeding depression.

A small number of adders (Vipera berus)
experienced inbreeding depression when farming
activities in Sweden isolated them from other
adder populations. Higher proportions of
stillborn and deformed offspring were born in the
isolated population than in the larger
populations. When researchers introduced adders
from other populations - an example of
outbreeding - the isolated population recovered
and produced a higher proportion of viable
offspring.
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Low Genetic Variation

• Genetic variation allows species to adapt and
  evolve in response to changing environmental
  conditions. For example, if a population is
  exposed to a new disease, natural selection will
  confer advantage to individuals with genes for
  resistance to the disease - if they exist in the
  population.

• Cheetah (left) populations have low amounts of
  genetic variation, while lion (right) populations
  typically have higher amounts. The lion in more
  likely to be resilient to any threats.
• In a small population there will be less genetic
  diversity.

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Low Genetic Variation

• As an endangered species dwindles, it loses
  genetic variation - and even if the species
  rebounds, its level of genetic variation will
  not. Genetic variation will only slowly be
  restored through the accumulation of mutations,
  migration and genetic shuffling over many
  generations.
• For this reason, an endangered species with low
  genetic variation may risk extinction long after
  its population size has recovered.

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Genetic swamping

• If two isolated populations of a species are
  reunited through a habitat change or
  reintroduction program, the genetic diversity of
  the smaller population may be lost in the
  process. This is genetic swamping, where the
  event may lead to the dilution or loss of
  potentially advantageous alleles it contained.

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Demographic variation

• In any population there is natural variation in
  population dynamics the birth rates, death
  rates, sex ratio, migration etc. Normally, this
  does not have a significant impact on the long
  term viability of the population as a whole, but
  where the population is very small, this natural
  demographic variation can have deleterious
  effects on the whole population.
• eg a species of bird may vary in the number of
  eggs laid in the breeding system. If the
  population reaches very small numbers and then
  has a year where the number of eggs laid is
  within its normal variability, but at its lowest
  value within that range, its risk of extinction
  may rise.

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2008 exam

• Q 14. Two previously isolated populations of a
  particular species come into contact and breed
  with each other. One of the populations is much
  larger than the other.
• A potential consequence for the smaller
  population may be
• a. genetic drift
• b. genetic swamping
• c. inbreeding
• d. demographic variation

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Assessment of biodiversity

• Measuring the species richness or diversity of a
  particular area is usually done by surveys and
  monitoring by
• counting the species and numbers of individuals
  via
• sight and count individuals eg spotlighting
• capture (and possibly tag) and release the
  individuals
• electronic surveillance
• indirect evidence of the species, eg scats,
  tracks
• recordings of sightings by field naturalists
• assessing of randomly selected sample quadrats or
  transects.
• species present
• relative abundance
• Other aspects may also be investigated weight,
  health, signs of breeding.
• Genetic diversity can be conducted through
  genetic research, or from observing variation on
  phenotype.

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Assessment of biodiversity

• This data can then be used to assess
  biodiversity.
• The numerical methods for measuring biodiversity
  include
• species richness the number of species in a
  region the more species, the greater the
  richness. Does not take into account of the
  number of individuals of each species present.
• species diversity the number of different
  species and the number of individuals of each
  species (ie each species relative abundance)
• species evenness the degree of similarity of
  population size for each of the species the more
  similar the abundance of each species the greater
  the evenness. A higher level of biodiversity
  exists when species of similar trophic levels
  have high species evenness.
• endemism the number of endemic species (that
  only occur in one region)
• rarity the number of rare species.

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Assessment of biodiversity

• Two indices which are commonly used to measure
  the species diversity of a region
• Simpsons Diversity Index (D) index which takes
  into account the species richness and the
  abundance of each species.
• Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H) index which
  takes into account species richness and abundance
  of each species within a habitat, but is
  increased by having high species evenness
• Other indices can be created to measure species
  diversity.
• You will be given the formula for index in exam.

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Assessment of biodiversity

• In measuring biodiversity, it is common to
  collect two or more sets of data for comparison
  or change over time.
• 2010 exam

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Assessment of biodiversity

• But there is natural variability in the data
  collected within an ecosystems because
• variation over space the natural and random
  variation in the distribution of species within
  its range
• variation over time eg diurnal changes,
  seasonal changes, lunar and tidal movements,
  breeding periods etc
• demographic variations natural variations in
  birth rate, death rate, sex ratio.
• Because ecological systems show a high level of
  natural variability it is necessary to determine
  whether there is a significant difference or
  change between two sets of data.

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Statistical analysis can be used to determine
whether there has been significant difference or
change. This can be achieved by checking if the
difference or change falls within the known level
of variation.
Assessment of biodiversity

• The more data, the more reliable the analysis.

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2006 exam

• Q10 Species diversity is best measured by
  counting
• a. the total number of species
• b. the total number of individuals
• c. the number of species and the relative
  abundance of each
• d. the number of different ecosystems available
  in the habitat
• Q 11 Genetic diversity in best assessed by
  determining
• a. small variations within a species
• b. the risk of extinction of the species
• c. the relative abundance of the species
• d. the number of different species in the
  environment

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2006 exam

• Q 16. A scientist monitors a population of
  possums for six years.
• Which conclusion best supports the above data
• a. The population is stable
• b. The population is steadily increasing
• c. An exotic competitor was removed in 2002
• d. A predator was introduced into the habitat
  in 2003.

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Population 44 42 45 40 43 44

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Conservation of biodiversity

• Preservation protect the biosphere in its
  natural state.
• (Ecologically) sustainable development the use
  of biological resources in a way and at a rate
  that does not limit its availability to future
  generations (ie intergenerational equity).
• Precautionary principle where there is a threat
  of serious or irreversible damage to the
  environment by a proposed activity, the lack of
  full scientific certainty about the possible
  impacts should not be used as a reason to
  proceed.

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Conservation of biodiversity

• When planning conservation strategies,
  biodiversity needs to be considered at the
• gene level
• population level
• species level
• ecosystem or habitat level
• The most effective conservation occurs when all
  are considered together.

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Conservation of biodiversity

• Methods of managing biodiversity include
• risk assessment evaluating the level of threat
  the species, population or ecosystem is exposed
  to
• evaluating the risk of potential developments
• protecting individual species or specific
  populations of a species
• maintaining or rehabilitating the habitat
• pest control
• relocation and reintroduction programs
• sustainable use of biological resources

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Risk assessment

• Risk of extinction (ER) involves the use of data
  to determine either
• the probability of extinction of the species for
  a given period,
• eg ER 80 (0.8) in the next 10 years.
• the carrying capacity of the habitat and how a
  known amount of habitat loss is likely to impact
  upon population numbers within a given period,
  ie ER 10 (or 0.1) in next 5 years if scenario x
  occurs.
• Risk of extinction requires the following data
• demographic data on the species
• current population numbers and the rate of
  population loss
• the amount of habitat area (territory) required
  by each individual of the species
• the amount of remaining habitat and its quality.
• Risk assessment can also be determined by
  ascertaining the minimum viable population
  required for the species to survive.

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2010 exam

• Q. 13
• The probability (calculated risk) of extinction
  of this Southern Bent-wing Bat population over
  the next fifteen years is estimated to be 0.70. A
  larger population in a second separate cave
  system has a probability of extinction estimated
  to be 0.20 over the same period.
• Which of the following best gives the
  probability of extinction of both populations in
  the next fifteen years?
• a. 0.14
• b. 0.27
• c. 0.50
• d. 0.97

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Risk assessment

• Population Viability Analysis (PVA) is a tool
  used to assist in determining the level of risk
  and the appropriate management strategies to
  conserve a species or population.
• It uses computer-based ecological modelling and
  the information used in risk assessment.
• It uses this information to predict the likely
  outcome, for the species or population, of
  various scenario, and
• ranks the management options available, and
• identifies where further research is needed.

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2005 exam

• Q.4e
• Outline a scientific process for evaluating the
  threats to the species.
• (1 mark)
• Population Viability Analysis (PVA)
• Risk of extinction (ER)

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Risk assessment

• Assigning conservation status classifies the
  level of risk confronting a taxon.
• The International Union for the Conservation of
  Nature (IUCN) has devised a system to award
  conservation status redlist.
• The criteria used include
• the population size and the observed population
  change over time
• the total number of mature adults
• the extent of the species range (geographic
  distribution)
• the probability of extinction in the wild over a
  designated number of years or generations.
• Commonwealth and state government use a similar
  process to assign conservation status.

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conservation status definition risk of extinction
Extinct no reasonable doubt the last individual has died
Extinct in wild survives only in cultivation or captivity or naturalised community
Critically endangered extreme high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future ER 50 within 10 years or 3 generations
Endangered very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future ER 20 within 20 years or 5 generations
Vulnerable high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future ER 10 within 100 years
Conservation dependent part of a conservation program, the cessation of which would result in the taxon moving into one of the above categories
Data deficient
Low risk
Not evaluated
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2007 exam

• Q 17
• In Victoria, the conservation status of the
  Striped Legless Lizard is endangered, while the
  Swamp Skink is regarded as vulnerable
• This means the Striped Legless Lizard
• a. is in competition with the Swamp Skink
• b. will survive for longer than the Swamp Skink
• c. has a population size smaller than the Swamp
  Skink
• d. is at greater risk of extinction than the
  Swamp Skink

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Evaluating the risk of potential developments

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the
  assessment of environmental impact of a major
  development before it proceeds. It is an example
  of the precautionary principle in action.
• It may not prevent development from proceeding,
  even if environmental degradation is predicted to
  occur, if the potential social and economic or
  other environmental benefits are deemed to
  outweigh the potential losses.
• An EIA involves
• synthesis of existing information on native
  species and the region
• additional research conducted by experts
• considers alternative designs and locations
• includes risk assessment techniques
• allows for community consultation and input
• arranges for ongoing monitoring if the project
  does proceed
• attempts to balance environmental, social and
  economic considerations.

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Evaluating the risk of potential developments

• An EIA is required when the proposal
• requires the clearing over 10ha of native
  vegetation
• is deemed to be likely to affect endangered
  species
• is proposed for a region of high conservation
  significance
• is not authorised under any existing forest
  management plan
• may eventually involve the loss of significant
  proportion of an species habitat
• is located within a wetland listed under the
  Ramsar Convention
• may have an extensive or major impact on an
  aquatic, estuarine or marine ecosystem
• may have an extensive or major impact on human
  health
• has potential carbon emissions exceeding 200 000
  tonnes

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Protecting individual species or specific
populations of a species

• International level
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered
  Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1992
• Ensures that the international trade in
  biological resources does not pose a threat or
  contribute to the decline or possible extinction
  of any species
• Ramsar Convention 1983
• Conservation of wetland habitats and paths used
  by migratory birds
• Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
• National level
• National Strategy for the Conservation of
  Australias Biological Diversity 1996
• Environmental Protection and Biodiversity
  Conservation Act 1999
• State level
• Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988
• Provides legal protection and a Recovery Plan
  for species and ecosystems which have been
  identified as being threatened.

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Flora Fauna Guarantee Act (1988)

• It involves a process of investigation and
  research.
• If a species is found to be in need to
  protection, it is listed as threatened and an
  Action Statement is produced which
• identifies threats to the species and designates
  its conservation status
• confers legal protection for the species
  authorities must prosecute those who injure or
  cause the loss of individuals of the species
• establishes a management plan (Recovery Plan) for
  its conservation
• assigns responsibility to government agencies and
  individuals
• establishes ongoing monitoring
• arranges for review of their status from time to
  time
• Members of the public, including experts, can
  nominate a species or Victorian population they
  believe is at risk of extinction.

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Protecting and rehabilitating habitat

• Conservation reserves national parks,
  conservation reserves, multi-use reserves
• Reducing vegetation clearance
• Habitat rehabilitation revegetation, replanting,
  erosion repair, address contamination and
  pollution
• Habitat maintenance prevention of degradation
  control burning to produce a mosaic of different
  aged habitats, fencing to obstruct pests, erosion
  prevention, etc
• Creating or preserving wildlife corridors which
  link fragments of remnant vegetation
• promoting gene flow and genetic diversity
• the ability for individuals to migrate in
  response to environmental change

90
http//ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/03/jaguars/
photo-map-interactive
91
Pest control

• The control of pest animals, weeds or diseases
  can be achieved by
• culling or relocating pests and weed
• erecting fences to keep out pests, methods of
  preventing seeds and diseases from entering
  areas.
• introducing natural predators to the pest

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Translocation and reintroduction programs

• Native species may over-breed and be at risk of
  exceeding their habitats carrying capacity.
  Translocation can overcome this problem.
• Individuals from one population may be
  translocated to another region where population
  numbers are low or have died out.
• Species may be propagated in herbaria or bred
  through a captive breeding program zoos or
  sanctuaries, and reintroduced back into the wild.
  
• The problems associated with these strategies
  can be reduced by
• carefully staged transitions in reintroductions
• tracking the parentage of individuals in the
  program (pedigree books) to reduce inbreeding
• outbreeding
• - swap individuals between different breeding
  programs
• - add individuals from the wild to the program
  from time to time
• - releases of some captive bred individuals to
  the wild populations
• genetic testing and monitoring of their phenotype
  variety.

93
Sustainable use of biological resources

• The concept of conservation and sustainable
  development does not preclude the harvesting of
  use of a species or region, but they must be used
  in a way that ensures it is available for future
  generations
• This can be achieved through
• Ecotourism allowing tourist use of the site but
  in a way which causes least possible degradation
  to the site and has an environmental educative
  component.
• Sustainable harvesting of biological resources
  resources, such as trees and fish, are harvested
  or used at a rate which minimises impact and
  ensure the resource is maintained into the long
  term future.

94
2005 exam

• Q. 10. Which one of the following management
  strategies is likely to increase genetic
  diversity in a population of a species?
• a. wildlife corridors connecting different
  habitats
• b. culling some animals to allow more access to
  food
• c. fencing their breeding habitat to exclude
  predators
• d. removal of some pairs for a captive breeding
  program and reintroduction to this habitat

95
Evaluating efforts to protect biodiversity

• Requires research, surveying and/or monitoring to
  establish
• Has the genetic diversity increased?
• Have the species/population bred in the wild?
• Has the health of individuals been maintained?
• Has the range of the species/population expanded?
• Have pest species declined?
• Has habitat quality improved?
• Has species abundance or diversity been
  maintained or increased?

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Overview of Area of Study 2 Diversity in the
Biosphere

• What is biodiversity?
• Why is it important?
• What are the threats to biodiversity?
• How is biodiversity assessed?
• How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
• Examination of a selected endangered species and
  its management.

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Your endangered species

• a description of the animal and its survival
  needs its original range, habitat and other
  requirements
• the current geographic locations of the remaining
  populations and a history of its population
  decline, including the threats that have caused
  its decline and current population numbers
• the species conservation status, what this
  status means in terms of level of threat and its
  risk of extinction, and the reasons why it has
  been awarded this status
• strategies set out in the Action Statement to
  conserve the species and the stakeholders
  involved in the species conservation and their
  roles
• evaluation of the strategies implemented to
  conserve the species
• a detailed description of a remaining population
  of the species
• the habitat it provides
• the threats that exist in this population
• strategies which have been implemented to protect
  this population
• monitoring used to evaluate the strategies
• an evaluation of how the population is being
  managed