Christianity Challenged

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Christianity Challenged
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The Great Schism

• While the Roman church evolved under the pope,
  the Greek-speaking eastern Roman Empire followed
  a different evolution.
• Differences in history led to the first major
  schism or separation of the Church.
• The Greek church looked to an emperor and a
  patriarch in Constantinople.
• The Greek church maintained authentic tradition,
  while the pope asserted the ancient primacy of
  Rome, he was the supreme authority of the entire
  Church.
• Conflict arose over differences in custom, rule
  and liturgical expression.

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The Differences

• The Christian Church split into the Orthodox
  Church and the Roman Catholic Church
• Each Church took on its distinctive customs,
  practices, and emphases.
• The essential doctrine remained the same, the
  major issue was the role of the papacy in church
  authority.
• In the Western Church, the popes
• were recognized as the
• successors of Saint Peter
• the symbols of
• authority.

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The Eastern Church

• The Christian Church in the East became known as
  the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• Church governance is in the hands of local
  patriarchs and bishops.
• The patriarch of Constantinople is looked to as
  having primacy of honour, but not actual
  authority.
• The Eastern Church held to the practice of the
  early Christian communities the bishops were
  selected by their local communities, and each
  local bishop was considered equal to all other
  bishops in authority.
• Western bishops added a line (the Holy
  Spiritwho proceeded from the Father and the
  Son) to the Nicene Creed without consulting
  eastern patriarchs.

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The Filioque Controversy

• Filioque means from the son
• Centers on the relative divinity of the Father
  and the Son
• In the place where the original Nicene Creed
  reads "We believe in the Holy Spirit ... who
  proceeds from the Father", the amended version
  reads "We believe in the Holy Spirit ... who
  proceeds from the Father and the Son"
• The Son and the Spirit are said to have their
  eternal origin from the Father the Son, the
  eternal is "generated" ("born" or "begotten") of
  the Father, while the Spirit "proceeds" from the
  Father.
• The essential matter in the filioque clause is a
  desire to protect the deity of the Holy Spirit.

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Other Differences

• Other differences
• The Western Church, until much later, used only
  Latin in its rituals, however the Orthodox
  churches used whatever language the local people
  spoke.
• In Roman Catholicism, priests are required to be
  celibate Orthodox priests are not.
• Different calendars of religious feasts.
• Orthodox Churches use leavened bread the
  Catholic Church does not.
• The 7th and 8th centuries saw the rapid expansion
  of Islam led to the disappearance of
  Christianity in Syria, Egypt and North Africa
  (weakened the Eastern Church).
• Along with these differences and the Filioque
  Clause, which proved to be the final straw, a
  mutual excommunication between Rome and
  Constantinople took place in 1054.

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The Basic Causes of the Schism of 1054

• Leadership The Roman pope versus the emperor or
  patriarch in Constantinople
• Language Latin vs. Greek as the official
  language of the Religion. Many of the original
  New Testament books were written in Greek.
• Customs different customs and practices related
  to historical traditions such as the singing of
  major portions of the mass.
• Art cultural differences were reflected in the
  art.
• 5. Doctrine The eastern rite uses doctrine only
  from the first seven Church councils because
  they all occurred in the East.

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Schism between East and West
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The Eastern Orthodox Church Today

• Includes the Greek, Serbian, Russian and other
  eastern churches
• Has about 250 million members
• Observes the same 7 sacraments as Catholicism,
  but limits its doctrines to those set out by
  seven councils held prior to 787.
• Focus is on the Incarnation, a mystical union
  with god through faith in Christ
• Worship includes strict fasts and other
  disciplines

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The Use of Icons in the Orthodox Church

• They were used to help teach the faithful about
  God.
• Icons kept the mind from wandering and helped
  focus one's attention on prayer.
• The icon is of particular importance for the
  Orthodox Church since it is seen as the dwelling
  place of God's grace, creating in the faithful a
  sense of the presence of God.
• The faithful do not worship the wood and paint,
  but deeply respect and venerate the person
  depicted.

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The Medieval Era Crusades and Contact with the
Jewish and Muslim Worlds

• Beginning in 700 AD, much of the formerly
  Christian Roman Empire, especially in North
  Africa and the Middle East, was conquered by
  advancing Muslim armies
• The majority of inhabitants in these countries
  converted to Islam, with some Christian minority
  pockets remaining
• Jewish communities, after initial conflict with
  Islam, were left to live in relative peace within
  the growing Muslim Empire

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After the fall of Rome (476 AD) philosophy split
three ways

• ARISTOTLELEANISM Aristotles teachings were
  lost to western Europe but preserved, translated
  into Arabic and commented upon by Averroës and
  Avicenna in the Muslim culture
• PLATONISM Platos philosophy dominated the
  Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, centered in
  Constantinople
• NEO-PLATONISM Following St. Augustines
  example, western (Roman) philosophy was
  influenced by Plotinus until the Crusades and
  re-discovery of Aristotle.

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IMPORTANT FACTS

• As we can see, by 750 AD, much of the former
  Roman Empire was conquered by Muslim rulers
• Pockets of Christian communities remain in these
  countries to this day (e.g. Iraq, Egypt)
• Europe contended with a Muslim threat to its
  territory until the late 1800s
• Turkish armies threatened the gates of Vienna,
  Austria in 1699, leaving behind bags of coffee
  beans which explains why the beverage is so
  popular in the city to this day!

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• In 800 AD, the Frankish king CHARLEMAGNE was
  crowned Holy Roman Emperor
• He fought a border war along the Pyrenees against
  the Muslim rulers of Spain
• Parts of Spain were ruled by Muslims until 1492
  when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella expelled
  the last Moors (along with Spains last remaining
  Jews
• Muslim Ottoman Turkish armies conquered
  Constantinople, the Eastern Roman capital in 1453
• The Balkans, including the former Yugoslavia,
  were ruled by Muslims until the early 1900s,
  which explain the presence of Muslims in Bosnia

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• In 1095, Pope Urban II called on Christian
  knights in Europe to take up the Cross in
  order to liberate the Holy Land and its Christian
  sites in particular the Church of the Nativity
  in Bethlehem and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher
  in Jerusalem from infidel hands
• Over the course of the next 300 years, several
  Crusades re-established European contact with the
  Arab world, allowing the West to rediscover
  knowledge it had lost during the Dark Ages, but
  which had been preserved in the Arab world, e.g.
  the writings of Aristotle, algebra, medicine, etc.

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Pope Urbans Speech

• "With what reproaches will the Lord overwhelm us
  if you do not aid those who, with us, profess the
  Christian religion! Let those who have been
  accustomed unjustly to wage private warfare
  against the faithful now go against the infidels
  and end with victory this war which should have
  been begun long ago. Behold! on this side will be
  the sorrowful and poor, on that, the rich on
  this side, the enemies of the Lord, on that, his
  friends."

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The Capture of Jerusalem

• On July 15, 1099, Frankish armies captured
  Jerusalem. Its Jewish and Muslim inhabitants
  were slaughtered.

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Jerusalem in Crusader Times

• The First Crusade began in 1099
• Jerusalem was lost in 1187
• The Eighth and Last occurred in 1271
• Europe would never be the same as a result of its
  contact with the Jewish and Muslim world
• The Muslim world would never forget either!

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The Crusades

• The Crusades (1099-1290's) were attempts by
  European Christians to recapture the Holy Land
  (Palestine) from Muslims.
• The Effects of the Crusades
• New trade routes to the east stimulated the
  European economy
• Crusaders brought Muslim culture and technology
  back to Europe. For example Arabic Numeral
  System we now use, scientific knowledge
  Astrology, etc.
• Greek classics, particularly the philosophical
  tradition of Aristotle, were re-introduced to
  European universities.

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The Causes of the Reformation

• Changes European Society
• The expansion of the European economy as a result
  of the Crusades caused a number of changes in
  European society.
• Growth of cities and towns along with decline in
  rural feudalism
• Central authority of the Feudal Lord no longer a
  part of the lives of everyday people. People
  more self-determined.
• Emergence of a middle class who were involved in
  commerce.
• People were becoming financially independent and
  were becoming educated.
• A Cultural Renaissance resulted new thought,
  etc.
• Invention of the printing press made information
  (particularly the Bible) available to the
  educated middle classes.
• Widespread knowledge of the Bible led to calls
  for reform and/or purification of the Church.
• Increase in the number of poor people living on
  the outskirts of the cities.
• By the end of the 15th Century modern nation
  states were emerging which were seeking to be
  free from central powers of the past Papacy,
  the Germanic Empire, etc.

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1. Changes in the Church

• Changes in European society meant changes
  challenges for the Church
• The Church was rich, powerful, and served mainly
  the middle class and nobility.
• Church was out of touch with the poor. Church
  institution was no longer meeting the needs of
  the majority of the people.
• Abuses in the Church
• Abuses in the Mass Liturgies
• Abuses in the Clergy Clergy was poorly trained,
  etc.
• Abuses by Popes
• Problem of Indulgences.

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Abuses in the Church

• Selling Indulgences The Church, in order to
  raise money to build St. Peter's Basilica in
  Rome, had begun to allow people to purchase
  forgiveness in advance.
• Church Power Many people felt that the Church,
  under the authority of the Pope, had too much
  power in the world. They wanted the Church to
  stick more closely to spiritual matters. This
  was the beginning of a separation between Church
  and State which today has gone in the opposite
  extreme.
• Corrupt Clergy The clergy of the Church were
  corrupt and not living up to Christian Standards.
  They were accused of simony (bribes), nepotism
  (hiring relatives), and having concubines
  (mistresses).
• There was too much of a focus on saints and
  relics. It was argued that the liturgy (mass)
  had lost a sense of the spiritual and sacred.

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The Call for Reformation

• The pressure for reform came to a head in Germany
  through the monk Martin Luther (1483-1546).
• Luther was born in Germany in 1483, graduated
  from the university of Erfurt, studied law.
• Experienced God after a near-death experience,
  made him join a monastery, ordained at age 24,
  and sent to the University of Wittenberg to teach
  moral theology. Earned his doctorate in moral
  theology and was made professor of biblical
  studies at Wittenberg.
• He took his religious commitment seriously and
  studied the Bible, he became convinced that
  reforms were necessary if the Catholic Church was
  to be the Church founded by Jesus.

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The Lutheran Reformation

• Luther was repelled by the Catholic custom of
  buying indulgences.
• In 1517, needing money, the pope authorized a
  sale of indulgences a piece of paper stating
  that the pope using the power vested in him by
  Christ, forgave sins in return for a certain sum
  of money.
• Led to the belief that they could buy their way
  into heaven.
• In Luthers mind, these same people forgot that
  it is through Gods grace that Christians are
  saved not through their own efforts.

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Luther Outraged

• Luther believed that the Catholic Church had
  turned away from the Christian Scriptures
• The event that began the Reformation was the
  posting of Luthers Ninety-five Theses on the
  door of the Wittenberg Cathedral on 31 October
  1517, which were soon circulated throughout
  Europe.
• Church officials in Rome were strongly opposed to
  Luther and his theses.
• He began to say that total change was needed and
  in particular that the authority of the papacy
  must be ended.

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Luthers Views

• Luthers theses included
• 1. Human beings are saved by faith alone and not
  by any works they do.
• 2. The Church's sale of Indulgences was wrong.
• 3. Infallibility of the Pope Luther challenged
  the authority of the Pope.
• 4. Scripture is more important than Tradition.
• 5. Priests should marry.
• Church officials saw Luthers theses as
  heretical, his beliefs included
• The Absolute Authority of the Bible Gods Word
  in the Bible is the final authority that must be
  followed.
• Justification by Faith Alone Only by the grace
  of God can we be saved. Salvation came from a
  persons faith not actions.
• The Priesthood of All Believers Priests are not
  mediators between God and humankind. All humans
  have the same status before god and the same
  responsibilities to study the Bible and to
  transform the world into the Kingdom of God.

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The Controversies
Luther The Catholic Church
Authority of the Bible People interpret scripture, human teachings can be taken less seriously. The church is the only true interpreter of the Bible and its creeds and traditions must be observed.
Salvation God gives grace and salvation freely to undeserving humans, loving acts are evidence of the Holy Spirit in our lives. Good works are a necessary response to grace and are signs of their faith in Jesus. (faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead James 217)
Priesthood All humans have equal status before God and are equally responsible to study Gods word. Priests were not special mediators. Priest was a mediator between God and humankind taking the place of Jesus, (Peter passed on the duty to priest and bishops)
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The Protestants

• In 1521, Luther was excommunicated and outlawed
  by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, although he
  never intended to break away from the Catholic
  Church.
• Luthers reforms took root in many German states,
  he left the priesthood and a denomination of
  Christianity emerged that was eventually called
  Lutheran.
• The Emperor tried to force the German princes to
  reject Luther, but they objected and thus
  Luthers supporters became known as Protestants
  the name has been used ever since.
• The Protestant movement spread throughout much of
  northern Europe, Scandinavia, and North America.
  Churches also sprang up in Norway, Finland,
  Sweden and Denmark.

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Other Reforms

• John Calvin
• Studied law and theology at the University of
  Paris.
• Influenced by Luther, he broke with the R.C.C and
  escaped from France (persecutions of reformers
  had begun)
• Developed a criticism of Catholicism more
  thorough than Luther
• He banned almost all forms of religious ceremony,
  statues, shrines, and devotions, all of which he
  called idolatory. The Catholic mass was
  especially forbidden.

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Calvins beliefs

• Calvin preached the doctrine of predestination,
  the idea that God has preplanned everything that
  happens especially the salvation of individuals.
• God had determined from all eternity who would be
  saved and who would be condemned to eternal
  suffering, and there was nothing one could do to
  win Gods salvation.
• For all are not created in equal condition
  rather, eternal life is foreordained for some,
  eternal damnation for others.
• Believed in creating a godly state, cities and
  government should follow Christian teachings. If
  people followed Gods law and worked hard, they
  would prosper this prosperity in turn, would
  surely be a sign that they were predestined.
• He did not believe in the real presence of Jesus
  in the bread and wine.

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Calvins beliefs

• 1. Predestination The omnipotence of God and
  the salvation of the elect by God's grace alone,
  basically the theory of predestination. The
  "elected" are known as "saints" in the Calvinist
  faith. Calvin denied that human beings were
  capable of free will.
• 2. Scripture Calvin also stated that the
  writings of the scriptures are to be taken
  literally.
• 3. Structure Following the history of the
  earliest church recounted in the New Testament
  book, The Acts of the Apostles, Calvin organized
  the church of Geneva into four levels
• A. Pastors These were five men who exercised
  authority over religious matters in Geneva
• B. Teachers This was a larger group whose job it
  was to teach doctrine to the population.
• C. Elders The Elders were twelve men (after the
  twelve Apostles) who were chosen by the municipal
  council their job was to oversee everything that
  everybody did in the city.
• D. Deacons Modelled after the Seven in Acts
  6-8, the deacons were appointed to care for the
  sick, the elderly, the widowed, and the poor.

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Followers of Calvin

• John Knox was a dedicated pupil of Calvin, and
  returned with these views to Scotland. He
  eventually restructured the Church of Scotland,
  forming Presbyterianism.
• French Calvinists, called Huguenots, grew in
  numbers despite intense persecutions.
• In Holland, Calvinism became connected with the
  attempts by the Dutch to overthrow oppression by
  Catholic Spain.
• The majority of early immigrants to America were
  Calvinists, most notably the Puritans.

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Protestant Church Today

• It is the predominant form of Christianity in
  northern Europe, England, Scotland, Australia,
  the United States, and Canada.
• Calvins lasting legacy is called the Protestant
  work ethic, the belief that although good works
  could not help one to achieve salvation, work
  itself (and the prosperity it earned) was proof
  that one was in Gods grace.
• Todays Presbyterian Churches hold that no one is
  hindered from accepting Gods grace and
  salvation, nor is anyone condemned at birth.

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The Church of England

• The Anglicans (Episcopalians in the U.S.), were
  formed when the Church of England broke from Rome
  in 1536.
• King Henry VIII needed a male heir to his throne,
  and since his wife had only given him a daughter,
  he asked the pope for permission to divorce her.
• The pope could not grant this divorce, for
  several political reasons, (did not want to anger
  Emperor Charles V) so the king rejected papal
  authority and named himself and his successors
  the head of the Church of England.
• The statements of faith and practice of the
  English Church are very Catholic, Henry rejected
  Lutheran teachings and never considered himself a
  Protestant.
• The key issue was the matter of authority over
  the national Church in England.
• The Anglican Church has spread around the globe
  with about 65 million members.

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Anglican Reformations

• Methodism started by John and Charles Wesley
  (Anglican priests), who began preaching to the
  working classes of industrial England. Their
  message there is a warm and loving God who wants
  to save everyone from sin and hell. They
  disagreed with predestination.
• The Baptists Rejected infant baptism, believed
  only adults could freely assent to faith in
  Jesus. Also believed that the end of the world
  was coming soon.
• Pentecostalism believe in a baptism of the Holy
  Spirit, speaking in tongues and healing. They
  stress individual revelation and action under the
  power of the Holy Spirit.

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The Catholic Reformation

• Because the Roman Catholic Church had received so
  many challenges, a decision was made to
  re-examine the Church and its teachings.
• This period of time is known as the Catholic
  Reformation.
• This reform was dealt with at the Council of
  Trent (1545-1565).

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The Council of Trent

• Purpose of the Council of Trent
• bring the Reformers back into the Catholic Church
• clarify and define basic Catholic teachings and
  beliefs
• Outcomes
• The Reformers did NOT return.
• Many of the abuses in the Church were corrected.
• Beliefs and teachings were clarified (ie. both
  faith and good works are equally need for
  salvation celibacy of priest, supremacy of the
  Papacy, authority of tradition)
• Papal infallibility and Recognition of the 7
  sacraments
• New religious communities formed to implement
  these reforms. For example, The Society of Jesus
  was founded (1534) by Ignatius Loyola to spread
  the Catholic faith through education and
  missionary work. Today, there are over 20,000
  Jesuits who continue this work.
• Other Features
• The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - a war
  throughout Europe between Protestants and
  Catholics. The Church remained divided at the
  end of the war.
• Spain - Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross
• Mystics people full of direct experience of
  God. They established the Carmelite orders of
  priests and nuns.

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The Modern Period

• The Modern Period was ushered in during the 17th
  century, and the concept of human reasoning was
  stressed.
• Religion was diminished by an increasing emphasis
  in the belief that people could determine their
  own destiny and had little need for God.
• Christianity expanded overseas, to the Far East
  and South Africa.

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Reformation in the Modern Period

• Modern Catholicism has been strongly affected by
  the teaching of the Second Vatican Council.
  (Vatican Council II)
• A world-wide council of bishops convened by Pope
  John XXIII, occurring from 1962-1965.
• Made major strides in recognizing the validity of
  the existence of the various religions in the
  world.
• Encouraged the participation of Catholics in
  humanitarian efforts.
• Among the major changes was the shift from the
  use of Latin in the Mass to the use of the
  vernacular, the reception of the Eucharist in the
  hand, the addition of lay ministers within the
  Church, and a shift in the seating arrangements
  in the churches.

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The Call to Unity Ecumenism

• Ecumenism The promotion of worldwide unity
  among Christians.
• The restoration of unity among all Christians is
  one of the principal concerns of the Second
  Vatican Council. Christ the Lord founded one
  church and one Church only. However, many
  Christian communions present themselves to
  people as the true inheritors of Jesus Christ
  all indeed profess to be followers of the Lord
  but they differ in mind and go their different
  ways, as if Christ himself were divided (Decree
  on Ecumenism, number 1)
• Decree on Ecumenism
• Catholics should avoid judgments or actions that
  misrepresent non-Catholics.
• Study of other faiths to promote common
  understandings
• Catholics should cooperate with other Christians
  in service to humankind
• Catholics need to renew their faith through
  study, prayer, discussion of the Word of God, and
  participation in the sacraments.