EEL 3801

1
EEL 3801

• Part I
• Computing Basics

2
Data Representation

• Digital computers are binary in nature. They
  operate only on 0s and 1s.
• Everything must be expressed in terms of 0s
  1s - Instructions, data, memory locs.
• 1 on ? voltage at output of electronic device
  is high (saturated).
• 0 off ? voltage at output of electronic
  device is zero.

3
Data Representation

• The smallest element of information is a bit
  0 or 1. But by itself a bit does not convey much
  information. Therefore
• 8 bits in succession make a byte, the smallest
  addressable binary piece of information
• 2 bytes (16 bits in succession) make a word

4
Data Representation

• 2 words (32 bits in succession) make a double
  word.
• We can easily understand base 10 numbers. So we
  need to learn how to convert between binary and
  decimal numbers.
• Decimal numbers are not useful to the computer a
  compromise base 16 numbers (hexadecimal) and
  base 8 nos., or octal.

5
Binary Numbers

• Each position in a binary number, starting from
  the right and going left, stands for the power of
  the number 2 (the base).
• The rightmost position represents 20, which 1.
  
• The second position from the right represents 21
  2.
• The third position from the right represents 22
  4.
• The fourth position from the right represents 23
  8.

6
Binary Numbers

• The value of an individual binary bit is
  multiplied by the corresponding base and power of
  2, and all the resulting values for all the
  digits are added together. For ex.
• 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
• 027 026 125 024 123 022 021
  120
• 0 0 32 0 8 0 0 1 41

7
Binary Numbers

• Conversion from decimal to binary - Two methods
• Division by power of 2
• Find the value of the largest power of 2 that
  fits into decimal number.
• Set 1 for position bit corresponding to that
  power.
• Subtract that value from the decimal number.
• Go to the first step, and re-do procedure until
  remainder is 0

8
Binary Numbers

• Example
• decimal number 146
• Largest value of power of 2 that fits into 146 is
  128, or 27
• Set 8th bit (power of 7) to 1
• Subtract 128 from 146 18
• Largest value that fits into 18 is 16 or 24
• Set 5th bit (power of 4) to 1
• 18 - 16 2

9
Binary Numbers

• Example (continued)
• Largest power of 2 that fits into 2 is 2, or 21
• Set second bit (power of 1) to 1
• Remainder is now 0
• Set all other bits to zero
• The binary equivalent 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

10
Binary Numbers

• Second Method
• Division by 2
• Integer divide the decimal number by 2.
• Note the remainder (if even, 0 if odd, 1)
• The remainder represents the bit
• Integer divide the quotient again by 2 and note
  remainder.
• Continue until quotient 0

11
Binary Numbers

• Example
• Decimal number 146.
• 146/2 73, remainder 0
• 73/2 36, remainder 1
• 36/2 18, remainder 0
• 18/2 9, remainder 0
• 9/2 4, remainder 1
• 4/2 2, remainder 0
• 2/2 1, remainder 0

12
Binary Numbers

• 1/2 0, remainder 1
• 0/2 0, remainder 0
• Starting from the last one, the binary number is
  now the string of remainders
• 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
• Since the 0 to the left does not count, we can
  lop it off
• 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

13
Hexadecimal Numbers

• Large binary numbers are cumbersome to read.
• gt hexadecimal numbers are used to represent
  computer memory and instructions.
• Hexadecimal numbers range from 0 to 15 (total of
  sixteen).
• Octal numbers range from 0 to 7 (total of 8)

14
Hexadecimal Numbers

• The letters of the alphabet are used to the
  numbers represent 10 through 15.
• where A10, B11, C12, D13, E14, and F15
• But why use hexadecimal numbers?
• 4 binary digits (half a byte) can have a maximum
  value of 15 (1111), and a minimum value of 0
  (0000).

15
Hexadecimal Numbers

• If we can break up a byte into halves, the upper
  and lower halves, each half would have 4 bits.
• A single hexadecimal digit between 0 and F could
  more concisely represent the binary number
  represented by those half-bytes.
• A byte could then be represented by two
  hexadecimal digits, rather than 8 bits

16
Hexadecimal Numbers

• The advantage becomes more evident for larger
  binary numbers
• 00010110 00000111 10010100 11101010
• 1 6 0 7 9 4
  D A
• ? 160794DAh

17
Numbers

• A radix is placed after the number to indicate
  the base of the number.
• These are always in lower case.
• If binary, the radix is a b
• if hexadecimal, h,
• if octal, o or q.
• Decimal is the default, so if it has no
  indication, it is assumed to be decimal. A d
  can also be used.

18
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

• Similarly to binary-to-decimal conversion, each
  digit (position from right to left) of the hex
  number represents a power of the base (16),
  starting with power of 0.
• 2 F 5 B ? 2163 15162 5161 11160
  24096 15256 516 111
• 8192 3840 80 11 12,123

19
Binary Conversion into Hexadecimal

• Binary to hex is somewhat different, because we
  in reality, take each 4 bits starting from the
  right, and convert it to a decimal number.
• We then take the hexadecimal equivalent of the
  decimal number (i.e., 10 A, 11 B, etc.) and
  assign it to each 4 bit sequence.
• Each digit in a hex number hexadized decimal
  equivalent of 4 binary bits.

20
Hexadecimal Conversion into Binary

• This conversion is also rather simple.
• Each hex digit represents 4 bits. The
  corresponding 4-bit binary sequence replaces the
  hex digit. For example
• 26AF ? 0010 0110 1010 1111

21
Signed and Unsigned Integers

• Integers are typically represented by one byte (8
  bits) or by one word (16 bits).
• There exist two types of binary integers signed
  and unsigned

22
Unsigned Integers

• Unsigned integers are easy they use all 8 or 16
  bits in the byte or word to represent the number.
• If a byte, the total range is 0 to 255 (00000000
  to 11111111).
• If a word, the total range is 0 to 65,535
  (0000000000000000 to 1111111111111111).

23
Signed Integers

• Are slightly more complicated, as they can only
  use 7 or 15 of the bits to represent the number.
  The highest bit is used to indicate the sign.
• A high bit of 0 ? positive number
• A high bit of 1 ? negative number - counter
  intuitive, but more efficient.

24
Signed numbers (cont.)

• The range of a signed integer in a byte is
  therefore, -128 to127, remembering that the high
  bit does not count.
• The range of a signed integer in a word is
  32,768 to 32,767.

25
The Ones Complement

• The ones complement of a binary number is when
  all digits are reversed in value.
• For example,
• 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
• has a ones complement of
• 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

26
Storage of Numbers

• Unsigned numbers and positive signed numbers are
  stored as described above.
• Negatively signed numbers, however, are stored in
  a format called the Twos complement which
  allows it to be added to another number as if it
  was positive.

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Storage of Numbers (cont.)

• The Twos Complement of a number is obtained by
  adding 1 to the lowest bit of the ones
  complement of the number.
• The Twos Complement is perfectly reversible
• TC (TC (number)) number.

28
Storage of Numbers (cont.)

• Therefore, if the high bit is set (to 1), the
  number is a negatively signed integer.
• But, its decimal value can only be obtained by
  taking the twos complement, and then converting
  to decimal.
• If the high bit is not set ( 0), then the number
  can be directly converted into decimal.

29
Example

• 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 is a positive number, as the
  high bit is 0.
• 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 can be easily converted to 10
  decimal in a straightforward fashion.
• 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 10 decimal

30
Example (cont.)

• 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 is a negative number because of
  the high bit being set.
• 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0, however, is not 10, as we first
  have to determine its twos complement.

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Example (cont.)

• Ones Complement of (1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0) ? (0 1 1 1
  0 1 0 1),
• add 1 ? (0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0)
• ? 64 32 16 4 2 -118

32
Character Representation ASCII

• How do we represent non-numeric characters as
  well as the symbols for the decimal digits
  themselves if we want to get an alphanumeric
  combination?
• Typically, characters are represented using only
  one byte minus the high bit (7-bit code).

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Character Representation ASCII (cont.)

• Bits 00h to 7Fh represent the possible values.
  The ASCII table maps the binary number designated
  to be a character with a specific character. The
  back inside cover of the textbook contains that
  mapping.
• If the eighth bit is used (as is done in the IBM
  PC to extend the mapping to Greek and graphics
  symbols), then the hex numbers used are 80h to
  FFh.

34
Character Representation ASCII (cont.)

• The programmer has to keep track of what a binary
  number in a program stands for.
• It is not inherent in the hardware or the
  operating system.
• High level languages do this by forcing you to
  declare a variable as being of a certain type.
• Different data types have different lengths

35
EEL 3801

• Part II
• System Architecture

36
Components

• Video Display Terminal self explanatory
• Keyboard self-explanatory
• Disk Drives self-explanatory
• System Unit contains the motherboard or the
  system board. Otherwise self-explanatory

37
Components (cont.)

• Random Access Memory (RAM) Electronic memory
  where the program and the data are kept while the
  program is running. It is volatile since the
  contents are lost if there is loss of power.
  Additionally, it is also called dynamic since its
  contents must be continuously refreshed.

38
Components (cont.)

• Read-Only Memory (ROM) BIOS Contains the
  information on the input output peripherals.
• CMOS RAM Keeps system setup information.
• Expansion slots Permit expansion of the system
  by adding special purpose boards such as modems,
  communication cards, etc.

39
Components (cont.)

• Power Supply Self-explanatory
• Parallel Port Output port that transfers a set
  of bits simultaneously. Typically used for
  printers. Allow for quick transfer of data but
  only for short distances.
• Serial port Output port where single bits are
  produced one by one. Slower, but useful for
  longer distances.

40
Components (cont.)

• Microprocessor Intel microprocessors are
  downwardly compatible with each othe.
• Programs written on older versions will run on
  the newer ones, but programs written for the
  newer versions will not run on the older ones.
• Read Section 2.1 of the textbook for more details.

41
System Architecture

• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the most
  important part of the computer. It consists of
  the Arithmetic logic Unit (ALU) and the Control
  Unit (CU).
• The ALU carries out arithmetic, logic and
  shifting operations.
• The CU fetches data and instructions and decodes
  addresses for the ALU.

42
System Architecture (cont.)

• Additionally, there may be a math coprocessor,
  which speeds up mathematical calculations, as
  well as many other support chips. However, they
  are all coordinated by the CPU.

43
The CPU

• The most basic tasks of the CPU are
• Find and load the next instruction from memory.
• Execute the instruction. This is composed of
  several sub-instructions that we will discuss
  later.

44
The CPU (cont.)

• The CPU, besides the ALU and CU, is composed of
  several other components
• Data bus Wires that move data within the CPU
  itself.
• Registers High-speed memory elements within the
  CPU itself on which can significantly speed up
  the performance of the computer.
• Clock A timing device whose ticks coordinate all
  individual operations that take place in the
  computer. These ticks are called machine cycles.

45
Registers

• Registers are special work areas inside the CPU
  that can store data and/or instructions.
• These memory elements are very fast.
• There are several registers on the Intel 8088
  family of microprocessors
• Data registers
• Segment registers
• Index registers
• Special registers
• Flag register

46
Data Registers

• Also called general purpose registers.
• Are used for arithmetic and data manipulation
  operations.
• Can be addressed as either 8 or 16 bit values, or
  as both.
• The 80386 and newer CPUs use 32-bit registers
  addressable as 16-bit ones.

47
Data Registers (cont.)

• There are several of these.
• The AX Register the accumulator register is used
  by the CPU for arithmetic operations.
• It is a 16-bit register, but can be addressed as
  two independent 8-bit registers called AH (for
  high) and AL (for low).

48
Data Registers (cont.)

• The BX Register the base register is also
  general purpose (like the AX).
• Has the ability to hold addresses for other
  variables (pointers).
• Also 16-bit that can be independently addressed
  as two 8-bit bytes (BH and BL).

49
Data Registers (cont.)

• The CX register the counter register best serves
  as the counter for repeating looping
  instructions.
• These instructions automatically repeat and
  decrement the CX register, and quit when it
  equals 0.
• Also 16-bit that can be independently addressed
  as two 8-bit bytes (CH and CL).

50
Data Registers (cont.)

• The DX Register the data register is also
  general purpose but has a special role when doing
  multiplication or division.

51
Segment Registers

• These registers are used to store memory
  locations of either instructions or data in main
  memory.
• These registers contain the base segment of the
  memory location where the memory segment begins.

52
Segment Registers (cont.)

• There are several of these
• The CS Register the code segment register
  contains the base location of the executable
  instructions that make up the program.
• Note that the base location can only address the
  initial location where these instructions can be
  found, not the entire segment..

53
Segment Registers (cont.)

• The DS Register the data segment register is the
  default base location in memory for variables
• The SS Register the stack segment register
  contains the base location of the run-time stack.
  
• The ES Register the extra register is an
  additional memory location where additional base
  locations can be stored.

54
Index Registers

• Contain the offset (the distance from the base
  segment) where a specific variable or instruction
  may be found. The base segment and the offset
  can uniquely identify any addressable location of
  any length in memory. Base segment offset
  memory location.

55
Index Registers (cont.)

• There are several of these
• The SI Register the source index takes name from
  the instruction used to move strings.
• SI usually contains an offset from the DS
  register, but can address any variable.

56
Index Registers (cont.)

• The DI Register generally acts as a destination
  for string movement instructions. Typically
  contains an offset for the ES register, but not
  necessarily so.
• The BP Register the base pointer register
  contains an offset from the stack register (SS).
  
• Used to locate variables in the stack.

57
Special Registers

• Do not fit into any other categories.
• The IP Register the instruction pointer register
  contains the offset of the next instruction to be
  executed.
• Combines with CS to form the complete address of
  the next executable instruction.

58
Special Registers (cont.)

• The SP Register the stack pointer register
  contains the offset from the beginning of the
  stack segment to the top of the stack.
• SS and SP combine to form the complete address
  for the top of the stack.

59
Flags Register

• One single 16-bit register whose individual bit
  positions serve as flags to indicate the status
  of the CPU or the result of some arithmetic
  operation.
• The individual positions are predefined, although
  not all 16 are defined.

60
Flags Register (cont.)

• Bit positions and flags
• 0 ? Carry flag Set when result of unsigned
  arithmetic operation is too large to fit into
  destination. Values are 1carry 0no carry.
• 1 ? undefined
• 2 ? Parity flag reflects the number of bits that
  are set in the result of an operation. Can be
  even or odd.

61
Flags Register (cont.)

• 3 ? undefined
• 4 ? Auxiliary carry set when operation causes a
  carry from bit 3 to bit 4. Rarely ever used.
• 5 ? undefined.
• 6 ? Zero flag Set when result of an operation
  results in zero. Used in jumping to other
  instructions based on comparison of two values.
  Has a value of 1when 0 0 when 0.

62
Flags Register (cont.)

• 7 ? Sign flag Set when result of an operation
  results in negative number. Value is 1 when
  negative 0 when positive.
• 8 ? Trap flag Determines whether or not the CPU
  will be halted after each instruction is
  executed. Allows Trace or stepping through a
  programs execution. Allows the programmer to
  control the CPU in this way through the INT 3
  instruction.

63
Flags Register (cont.)

• 9 ? Interrupt flag Makes it possible for
  external interrupts to occur. Interrupts can be
  disabled by setting this flag to 0. Controlled
  by the programmer through the CLI and STI
  instructions.
• A ? Direction flag controls the assumed
  direction used by the string processing
  instruction. Values are 1up 0down.
  Programmer can control this flag through the STD
  and CLD instructions.

64
Flags Register (cont.)

• B ? Overflow flag Like the Carry flag, but for
  signed arithmetic operations. Value is
  1overflow 0no overflow.
• C, D, E and F ? undefined

65
The Run-Time Stack

• The run-time stack is an important element in the
  execution of a stored program.
• It is a temporary holding area for addresses and
  data.
• It resides in the stack segment identified in the
  SS and SP registers.
• Each cell in the stack is 16 bits.

66
Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• The stack pointer holds the last element to be
  added or pushed into the stack.
• This is also the first element to be taken off
  the stack, or popped.
• This is referred to as Last-In-First-Out (LIFO).

67
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• There are three typical uses for the run-time
  stack
• If we want to save the contents of a register,
  the stack makes a great place to store their
  values temporarily.

68
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• When a subroutine is called from another part of
  the program, it is important that the processor
  return to the place where the function was called
  after it exits. The address of the instruction
  that called the subroutine is saved on the stack
  so as to be able to return to it later.

69
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• Local variables can be created when a subroutine
  is active and then popped off the stack when the
  subroutine returns to the calling instruction.
  This is done in an area inside the run-time stack
  called the stack frame.

70
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• Operations
• The push operation Used to put values of data or
  instructions onto the stack. There is only on
  place in the stack into which things can be
  inputted the top of the stack.
• mov ax,00A5 move 00A5 into AX
• push ax pushes content of ax into stack
• push bx assume BX has a value of 0001
• push cx assume cx has a value of 0002

71
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• The push instruction does not change the value of
  the source register (typically the ax register,
  but could be others). Rather it simply copies
  its value to the top of the stack.

72
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• The pop operation Used to remove the value in
  the stack pointed to by the stack pointer and
  places it in a register or memory location
  (variable). Immediately upon removing the
  element popped, the SP moves to the immediately
  previous element in the stack.
• pop ax pops stack and puts value into AX

73
The Run-Time Stack (cont.)

• Note that the value remains in the stack, but not
  being pointed by the stack pointer, it is subject
  to be overwritten by the next push operation.

74
Microinstructions

• Machine level instructions are not the lowest
  level instructions in the computer.
  Microinstructions are. These are very low-level
  operations that carry out the machine-level
  instructions.

75
Microinstructions (cont.)

• There are three basic ones
• fetch the control unit fetches the instruction,
  copies it into the CPU (register).
• decode this operation decodes the instruction as
  well as any operands specified by the
  instruction. If any operands, the control unit
  fetches the operand from main memory.

76
Microinstructions (cont.)

• execute the ALU executes the operation and
  passes the result operands to the CU, where they
  are returned to the registers and/or to main
  memory.
• Get next instruction
• Go back to step 1
• Microcode is the interface between the binary
  code level and the electronic level.

77
Memory organization of DOS

• The Intel 8086 processor can access 1 Mb of
  memory (actually, 1,048,576 bytes, which is FFFFF
  in a 20-bit address). This is called the Real
  Mode.
• The main memory is divided into RAM and ROM.
• RAM occupies low memory, and starts at 00000h and
  continues up to BFFFFh.

78
Memory organization of DOS (contd)

• ROM occupies high memory and begins at C0000 and
  continues to FFFFF.
• This is mostly used for the ROM BIOS (the hard
  disk controller).
• The BIOS contains diagnostic and configuration
  software, as well as input-output subroutines.

79
Memory organization of DOS (contd)

• Addresses begin with a hex address of 00000 and
  continue incrementally until FFFFF.
• DOS allows only the first 640kB of RAM to be used
  for programs.
• This is misleading because DOS (74kB) itself has
  to occupy this area as well.
• Remaining RAM used by video display and hard disk
  controller.

80
System Memory (cont.)

• The 80286 and more notably, the 80386 and 80486
  processors can run in Protected Mode.
• This means that they can radically increase the
  amount of memory they can address (16MB).

81
System Memory (cont.)

• The Pentium can address significantly more than
  that.
• Unfortunately, DOS can only run in real mode.
• However, Windows runs in protected mode and
  liberates the programmer from the 1MB memory
  limit.

82
System Memory (cont.)

• The 80386 and beyond processor also has the
  virtual 8086 mode, which allows concurrent real
  mode processes to be executed in by a single CPU.
• The total memory being used can total more than
  the available RAM. The processor uses external
  memory (hard disk drive or floppy) to page
  currently unused portions of the program to these
  devices.

83
Address Calculations

• An address is a number that refers to an 8-bit
  (byte) memory location.
• The addresses are numbered consecutively,
  starting at 00000h and going up to the highest
  location in memory, depending on the amount of
  memory available.

84
Address Calculations (cont.)

• Addresses can be expressed in one of two ways
• A 32-bit (16 16) segment-offset address. This
  combines a base location (the base segment) with
  the offset to represent the actual address. For
  example, 08F10100, where 08F1 is the base
  location (segment) from which to start counting,
  and 0100 is the offset, or how much to count.
  The address points to the first byte in the
  address.

85
Address Calculations (cont.)

• A 20 bit absolute address, which refers to an
  exact memory location. For example, F405Bh.
• Using 20 bits, the processor can only address 1
  Mb (actually, 1,048,576 bytes) of memory.

86
Address Calculations (cont.)

• But address registers are only 16 bits wide,
  limiting the addressable memory to 65,535.
• Thus, the segment-offset technique is used to
  expand the range of accessible memory beyond the
  65,535 limit.
• Thus, when addressing memory locations, the
  registers combine the values of two registers,
  the base segment and the offset.

87
Address Calculations (cont.)

• The CPU uses the segment and offset value to
  generate an absolute address. It adds the
  segment and the offset to create the absolute
  address. The segment value is always known to
  have an implied half-byte at the right (0000).
• Example Given an address such as 08F10100.
  The absolute address (20 bit) would be calculated
  as follows

88
Address Calculations (cont.)

• Segment value plus implied byte 0 8 F 1 0 h
• Add the offset value 0 1 0 0 h
• __________________________________________
• Absolute Address 0 9 0 1 0 h
• The advantages to the segment offset method is
  that it allows the program to be loaded into any
  segment address in memory without having to
  recalculate the addresses of all variables.

89
Address Calculations (contd)

• Furthermore, large data structures that occupy a
  large block of memory can be easily accessed by
  knowing their base segment and offset.

90
EEL 3801

• Part III
• Assembly Language Programming

91
Assembly Language Programming

• The basic element of an assembly program is the
  statement.
• Two types of statements
• Instructions executable statements that actually
  do something.
• Directive provide information to assist the
  assembler in producing executable code. For
  example, create storage for a variable and
  initialize it.

92
Assembly Programming (contd)

• Assembly language instructions equate one-to-one
  to machine-level instructions, except they use a
  mnemonic to assist the memory.
• Program control Control the flow of the program
  and what instructions to execute next (jump,
  goto).
• Data transfer Transfer data to a register or to
  main memory.
• Arithmetic add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.

93
Assembly Programming (contd)

• Logical gt lt etc.
• Input-output read, print etc.

94
Statements

• A statement is composed of a name, a mnemonic,
  operands and an optional comment. Their general
  format is as follows
• name mnemonic operand(s) comments

95
Names, labels

• Name Identifies a label for a statement or for
  a variable or constant.
• Can contain one or more of several characters
  (see page 56 of new textbook).
• Only first 31 characters are recognized
• Case insensitive.
• First character may not be a digit.

96
Names, labels

• The period . may only be used as the first
  character.
• Cannot use reserved names.
• Can be used to name variables. Such when put in
  front of a memory allocation directive. Can also
  be used to define a constant. For example
• count1 db 50 a variable (memory allocation
  directive db)
• count2 equ 100 a constant

97
Names, labels

• Can be used as labels for statements to act as
  place markers to indicate where to jump to. Can
  identify a blank line. For example
• label1 mov ax,10
• mov bx,0
• .
• .
• .
• label2
• jmp label1 jump to label1

98
Mnemonics

• Mnemonic identifies an instruction or
  directive. These were described above.
• The mnemonics are standard keywords of the
  assembly language for a particular processor.
• You will become familiar with them as time goes
  on this semester.

99
Operands

• Operands are various pieces of information that
  tells the CPU what to take the action on.
  Operands may be a register, a variable, a memory
  location or an immediate value.
• 10 ? immediate value
• count ? variable
• AX ? register
• 0200 ? memory location
• Comments Any text can be written after the
  statement as long as it is preceded by the .

100
Elements of Assembly Language for the 8086
Processor

• Assembler Character Set These are used to form
  the names, mnemonics, operands, variables,
  constants, numbers etc. which are legal in 8086
  assembly.
• Constant A value that is either known or
  calculated at assembly time. May be a number or
  a string of characters. Cannot be changed at run
  time.

101
Elements of Assembly Language (cont.)

• Variable A storage location that is referenced
  by name. A directive must be executed
  identifying the variable name with the location
  in memory.
• Integers Numeric digits with no decimal point,
  followed by the radix mentioned before (e.g., d,
  h, o, or b). Can be signed or unsigned.

102
Elements of Assembly Language (cont.)

• Real numbers floating point number made up of
  digits, a decimal point, an optional exponent,
  and an optional leading sign.
• ( or -) digits.digits exponential ( or -)
  digits

103
Elements of Assembly Language (cont.)

• Characters and strings
• A character is one byte long.
• Can be mapped into the binary code equivalent
  through the ASCII table, and vice-versa.
• May be enclosed within single or double quotation
  marks.
• Length of string determined by number of
  characters in string, each of which is 1 byte.
  For example

104
Elements of Assembly Language (cont.)

• a 1 byte long
• b 1 byte long
• stack overflow 14 bytes long
• abc?A 8 bytes long

105
Example of Simple Assembly Program

• The following simple program will be demonstrated
  and explained
• mov ax,5 move 5h into the AX register
• add ax,10 add 10h to the AX register
• add ax,20 add 20h to the AX register
• mov sum,ax store value of AX in variable
• int 20 end program

106
Example (cont.)

• The result is that at the end of the program, the
  variable sum, which exists somewhere in memory
  (declaration not shown), now accepts the value
  accumulated in AX, namely, 35h.
• Explain program.

107
Example (cont.)

• Note that several things have been left off, such
  as directives. However, this program captures
  the essence of assembly language programming at
  its simplest.
• It still needs a directive to start the program.
  This is the A directive. It tells the processor
  to assemble this program at a particular memory
  location.
• A 100h

108
More Complex Assembly Language Example Program

• The following is a more complex program, used to
  advance an old dot matrix printer equivalently to
  the formfeed command on the printer control panel.

109
More Complex Assembly Language Program (cont.)

• a begin assembly
• mov ah,5 moves 5 to the AH register
• mov dl,C moves 0Ch to the DL register
• int 21 Calls DOS function 5
• int 20 terminate program
• n page.com names the program page.com
• r cx sets CX to the programs length
• the length is 8 bytes
• w writes program to disk
• q quit debug

110
More Complex Example (cont.)

• The value of 5 in AH is the name of the function
  to be called by the DOS subroutine. This
  particular one, the DOS function 5, sends the
  content of the DL register to the printer.
• The w command in DEBUGGER starts writing to
  memory from offset 100, up to the length of the
  program. Therefore, it needs to know the length
  of the program being written to disk. It counts
  8 bytes (mov, ah,5,mov,dl,C,int 21, and int 20).

111
More Complex Example (cont.)

• A more complex assembly program is shown below.
• This is similar to the program that you will do
  in the first lab session. It is the famous C
  program hello world.

112
More Complex Example (cont.)

• 1 title Hello World Program (hello.asm)
• 2
• 3 this program displays Hello, World
• 4
• 5 dosseg
• 6 .model small
• 7 .stack 100h
• 8
• 9 .data
• 10 hello_message db Hello, World!,0dh,0ah,
• 11

113
More Complex Example (cont.)

• 12 .code
• 13 main proc
• 14 mov ax,_at_data
• 15 mov ds,ax
• 16
• 17 mov ah,9
• 18 mov dx,offset hello_message
• 19 int 21h
• 20
• 21 mov ax,4C00h
• 22 int 21h
• 23 main endp
• 24 end main

114
More Complex Example (cont.)

• The program is explained as follows
• Line 1 Contains the title directive. All
  characters located after the title directive are
  considered as comments, even though the symbol
  is not used.
• Line 3 Comment line with the symbol
• Line 5 The dosseg directive specifies a standard
  segment order for the code, data and stack
  segments. The code segment is where the program
  instructions are stored. The data segment is
  where the data (variables) are stored. The stack
  segment is where the stack is maintained.

115
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 6 The .model directive indicates the memory
  architecture to be used. In this case, it uses
  the Microsoft small memory architecture. It
  indicates this by the word small after .model.
• Line 7 This directive sets aside 100h of memory
  for the stack. This is equivalent to 256 bytes
  of memory (162 256).
• Line 9 The .data directive marks the beginning
  of the data segment, where the variables are
  defined and memory allocated to them.

116
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 10 The db directive stands for define
  byte, which tells the assembler to allocate a
  sequence of memory bytes to the data that follow.
  0dh is a carriage return and 0ah is the linefeed
  symbol. The is the required terminator
  character. The number of memory bytes is
  determined by the data themselves. Hello_message
  is the name of the variable to be stored in
  memory, and the db allocates memory to it in the
  size defined by the data following it.
• Line 12 The directive .code is the indication of
  the beginning of the code segment. The next few
  lines represent instructions.

117
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 13 The proc directive is used to declare
  the main procedure called main. Any name could
  have been used, but this is in keeping with the
  C/C programming requirement that the main
  procedure be called the main function. The first
  executable instruction following this directive
  is called the program entry point - the point at
  which the program begins to execute.

118
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 14 The instruction mov is used to copy the
  contents of one address into the other one. The
  first operand is called the destination address,
  while the second one is called the source
  address. In this particular use, we tell the
  assembler to copy the address of the data segment
  (_at_data) into the AX register.
• Line 15 Copies the content of AX into DS, which
  is a register used to put the data segment, the
  default base location for variables.

119
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 17 This instruction places the value 9 in
  the AH register. Remember that from the page.com
  program, this is the register used to store the
  name of the DOS subroutine to be called with the
  int 21 instruction.
• Line 18 This instruction places the address of
  the string to be identified in the DX register.
  Remember that this is the offset, where the
  default base segment is already identified in the
  DS register as the base segment for the data
  segment. Since the address of the variable
  hello_message begins at the beginning of the data
  segment, identified by DS, we only need to supply
  the offset for the variable.

120
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 19 The instruction int 21, as we saw
  before, takes the name of the function from the
  DX register, which in this case is 9. DOS
  funtion 9, incidentally, sends the contents of DX
  register to the VRT output device. The DX
  register contains the address of the string to be
  sent.
• Line 21 and 22 These instructions represent the
  equivalent of an end or stop statement. This is
  different from that done for page.com because
  this will be an executable program (.exe), rather
  than a .com program. More on this later.
• Line 23 Indicates the end of the main procedure.

121
More Complex Example (cont.)

• Line 24 The END directive the last line to be
  assembled. The main next to it indicates the
  program entry point.

122
More Complex Example (cont.)

• The program may seem overly complicated for such
  a simple program.
• But remember that assembly language corresponds
  one-to-one with machine language instructions.
• Note that it takes only 562 bytes of memory when
  assembled and compiled.

123
More Complex Example (cont.)

• The same program written in a high level language
  will require several more machine level
  instructions to carry out the same thing.
• Written in Turbo C, the executable program
  would take 8772 bytes of memory to store.

124
Specifics of ALP Data Definition Directives

• A variable is a symbolic name for a location in
  memory. This is done because it is easy to
  remember variables, but not memory locations. It
  is like an aka, or a pseudonym.

125
Data Definition Directives

• Variables are identified by labels. A label
  shows the starting location of a variables
  memory location. A variables offset is the
  distance from the beginning of the data segment
  to the beginning of the variable.

126
Data Definition Directives (cont.)

• A label does not indicate the length of the
  memory that the variable takes up.
• If a string is being defined, the label offset is
  the address of the first byte of the string (the
  first element of the string).
• The second element is the offset 1 byte.
• The third element is offset 2 bytes.

127
Data Definition Directives (cont.)

• The amount of memory to be allocated is
  determined by the directive itself.

128
Define Byte

• Allocates storage for one or more 8-bit values
  (bytes). Has the following format
• name DB initialvalue ,initialvalue
• The name is the name of the variable. Notice
  that it is optional.

129
Define Byte (cont)

• initialvalue can be one or more 8-bit numeric
  values, a string constant, a constant expression
  or a question mark.
• If signed, it has a range of 127 to 128, If
  unsigned, it has a range of 0 255.

130
Define Byte - Example

• char db A ASCII character
• signed1 db -128 min signed value
• signed2 db 127 max signed value
• unsigned1 db 0 min unsigned value
• unsigned2 db 255 max signed value

131
Define Byte (cont)

• Multiple values A sequence of 8-bit numbers can
  be used as initialvalue. They are then grouped
  together under a common label, as in a list.
• The values must be separated by commas.
• list db 10,20,30,40

132
Define Byte (cont)

• The 10 would be stored at offset 0000
• 20 at offset 0001
• 30 at offset 0002 and
• 40 at offset 0003,
• where 0001 represents a single byte.

133
Define Byte (cont)

• A variables value may be left undefined. This
  can be done by placing a ? for each byte to be
  allocated (as in a list).
• count db ?

134
Define Byte (cont)

• A string may be assigned to a variable, each of
  whose elements will be allocated a byte.
• c_string db This is a long string
• The length of a string can be automatically
  determined by the assembler by the symbol.
• See page 65 of new book for details.

135
Define Byte Example

• Using DEBUGGER, variable names cannot be used
• A 150 Assemble data at offset 150
• db 10,0 define 2 data bytes, 1st10, 2nd0
• A 100 Assemble code at offset 100
• mov ax,0 clears the AX register
• mov ah,150 move cont. of 1st mem. addr. to AH
• add ah,10 add 10 to the contents of AH
• mov 151,ah move cont. of AH to other variabl
• int 20 end program

136
Define Byte Example (cont)

• If we dump the contents of memory locations at
  offset 150 and 151, we will find 10 in 150 and
  20 in 151.

137
Define Word

• Serves to allocate memory to one or more
  variables that are 16 bits long. Has the
  following format
• name DW initialvalue ,initialvalue
• The name is the name of the variable. Notice
  that it is optional.
• initialvalue can be one or more 16-bit numeric
  values, a string constant, a constant expression
  or a question mark.

138
Define Word (cont)

• If signed, it has a range of 32,767 to 32,768,
• If unsigned, it has a range of 0 65,535.

139
Define Word (Example)

• var dw 1,2,3 defines 3 words
• signed1 dw -32768 smallest signed value
• signed2 dw 32767 largest signed value
• unsigned1 dw 0 smallest unsigned value
• unsigned2 dw 65535 largest signed value
• var-bin dw 1111000011110000b
• var-hex dw 4000h
• var-mix dw 1000h,4096,AB,0

140
Reverse Storage Format

• The assembler reverses the bytes in a word when
  storing it in memory.
• The lowest byte is placed in the lowest address.
  
• It is re-reversed when moved to a 16-bit
  register.
• value dw 2AB6h
• B6 2A
• See example on page 50 of textbook

141
Define Doubleword DD

• Same as DB and DW, except the memory allocated
  is now 4 bytes (2 words, 32 bits).
• name DD initialvalue ,initialvalue
• The name is the name of the variable. Notice
  that it is optional.
• initialvalue can be one or more 32-bit numeric
  values, either in dec., hex or bin. form, string
  const., a const. Expression, or ?

142
Multiple Values

• A sequence of 32-bit numbers can be used as
  initialvalue.
• They are then grouped together under a common
  label, as in a list.
• The values must be separated by commas.

143
Reverse Order Format

• As in define word, the bytes in doubleword are
  stored in reverse order as in DW.
• For example,
• var dd 12345678h
• 78 56 34 12

144
Type Checking

• When a variable is created, the assembler
  characterizes it according to its size (i.e.,
  byte, word, doubleword, etc.).
• When a variable is later referenced, the
  assembler checks its size and only allows values
  to be stored that come from a register or other
  memory that matches in size.
• Mismatched movements of data not allowed.

145
Data Transfer Instructions mov

• The instruction mov is called the data transfer
  instruction.
• A very important one in assembly - much
  programming involves moving data around.
• Operands are 8- or 16-bit on the 8086, 80186 and
  80286.
• Operands on the 80386 and beyond, they can also
  be 32-bits long.

146
Data Transfer Instructions mov (cont)

• The format is
• mov destination,source
• The source and destination operands are
  self-explanatory.
• The source can be an immediate value (a
  constant), a register, or a memory location
  (variable). It is not changed by the operation.
• The destination can be a register or a memory
  location (variable).

147
Operands

• Register Operands Transfer involving only
  registers. It is the fastest.
• Source any register
• Destination any register except CS and IP
• Immediate Operands
• Immediate value can be moved to a register (all
  but IP) or to memory.
• Destination must be of same type as source.

148
Operands (cont.)

• Direct operands
• A variable may be one of the two operands, but
  not both. It does not matter which is the
  variable.

149
Limitations on operands

• There are some limitations on mov
• CS or IP not destination operand
• Moving immediate data to segment registers.
• Moving from segment register to segment register.
• Source and destination operands of different
  types.
• Immediate value as destination (obviously!!)
• Memory to memory moves

150
Sequential Memory Allocation

• Memory for variables is allocated sequentially by
  the assembler.
• If we call DB several times, such as in
• var1 db 10
• var2 db 15
• var3 db 20

151
Sequential Memory Allocation (cont)

• var1 will be the first byte in the data segment
  of main memory.
• This segment may be identified by the base
  segment and the offset.
• var2 will occupy the next available memory
  location, or 1 byte away from the beginning of
  the data segment in memory.

152
Sequential Memory Allocation (cont)

• var 3 will be 2 bytes away from this starting
  point.
• This will be the case even if the memory
  locations are not labeled, such as in
• db 10
• db 20
• db 30

153
Offsets

• Many times, memory will be allocated, but not
  labeled.
• This is typical of an array, when only the entire
  array is labeled, not each cell.
• The address of the array is the address of the
  first element (position) of the array.
• All subsequent cells are allocated by adding an
  offset to the address of the head element.

154
Offsets

• This is also true when a list of elements is
  defined through DB, DW, or DD.
• Example an array or list of 8-bit numbers whose
  memory location is called a-list.
• To access the first element of a-list, we
  reference the location in memory corresponding to
  a-list.
• To access any of the other elements of the array,
  we provide an offset to the address of array.
• The second element at array1, the third at
  array2, the fourth at array3, etc.

155
Offsets

• To move the value of the 5th element of the array
  to register AL
• mov al array4
• The size of the two operands must match.
• Otherwise, an error may result.
• Note that AL is used, not AX - 1 byte.
• See example on page 54 of textbook.

156
PTR Operator

• Used to clarify an operands type. NOT a
  pointer.
• It can be placed between the mov command and the
  operands, as for example Used for readability
  only. It does not change the size of the operand
  in any way.
• mov word ptr count,10
• mov byte ptr var2,5

157
XCHG Instruction

• Allows the direct exchange of values between 2
  registers or between a register and a memory
  location.
• Very fast, used for sorting
• Needs to obey size constraints
• Used in sorting.

158
Stack Operations

• Already discussed what a stack is.
• Each position in the stack is 2 bytes long only
  16-bit registers can be copied into the stack.
• The bottom of the stack is in high memory, and
  it grows downward.
• Typically, 256 bytes are allocated to the stack,
  enough for 128 entries.

159
Stack Operations (cont)

• Identified by the SS register (stack segment),
  which identifies the address of the base location
  of the stack segment.
• The stack pointer (SP register) indicates the
  address of the first element of the stack (top of
  the stack).

160
Push Operation

• Puts something (a 16-bit element) at the top
  position of the stack.
• Decrements stack pointer (it grows downward).
• Can put the contents of a register or of memory
  (a variable)
• In 80286 and later processors, it can also place
  an immediate value.

161
Push Operation

• Has the following form
• push ax
• push ar1
• push 1000h

162
Pop Operation

• The opposite of the push operation.
• Removes the top element in the stack.
• Copies value of top element in stack to
  destination indicated in the statement.
• Increments stack pointer.
• Registers CS (code segment) and IP (instruction
  pointer) cannot be used as operands.

163
Pop Operation

• Has the following form
• pop ax
• pop ar2

164
PUSHF and POPF

• Special instructions that move and remove the
  contents of the Flags register onto and out of
  the stack.
• These are used to preserve the contents of these
  registers in case it is changed and the old
  values are to be reinstated.
• See page 56.

165
PUSHA (80186) and PUSHD (80386)

• Pushes the contents of the registers AX, CX, DX,
  BX, original SP, BP, SI, and DI on the stack in
  this exact order.
• PUSHD does the same for 32-bit registers.

166
POPA and POPD

• Pops the same registers in the reverse order.

167
Arithmetic Instructions

• Form the heart of any pro