MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1914

1
MODERN ERA1750 - 1914

• CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE
  STRUCTURES

2
ENLIGHTENMENT

• Enlightenment
• Thinkers called philosophes
• Sought natural laws that governed human society
• Center of Enlightenment was France
• Theory of progress was ideology of philosophes
• Apply reason/science to society, government, law
• Voltaire (1694-1778)
• Champion of religious liberty and individual
  freedom
• Prolific writer father of Enlightenment
• John Locke
• All human knowledge comes from sense perceptions
• Life, Liberty and Property 1689 English Bill of
  Rights
• Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive
  ruler
• Adam Smith laws of supply and demand determine
  price
• Montesquieu checks, balances, balanced
  government
• Deism
• Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment
• Accepted existence of a god
• Denied supernatural teachings of Christianity

3
THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• Revolutionary Ideas
• Popular sovereignty
• Relocating sovereignty in the people
• Traditional monarchs
• Claimed a "divine right" to rule
• Derived from God, unquestionable
• Monarch unanswerable to people
• Constitutional Limitations
• Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
• Glorious Revolution of 1688
• Made the monarch responsible to the people
• John Locke's theory of contractual government
• Authority comes from the consent of the governed
• Freedom and equality
• Demands for freedom of worship
• Freedom of expression, assembly
• Demands for political and legal equality
• Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats
  
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract

4
STAGES OF POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS

• The Stage is Set
• State is economically weak, government is
  ineffective
• New ideas arise, new groups arise to challenge
  status-quo, intellectual movements influence
  change
• Old Regime Loses Control
• Old elites attempt to reassert privileges
• Some short term event sparks a conflict, disaster
  rallies forces who oppose old elites
• Government too divided and weak to suppress
  revolt
• Moderate Phase of the Revolution
• Moderates come to power, initiate changes
• Electorate expanded, constitution liberalized,
  some reforms initiated
• Reaction to the Moderates Arise
• Moderates enact only limited reforms
• Radicals mobilize their supporters demanding more
  extensive reforms
• Radicals Seize Control
• Radicals take control of state and revolution
• Radicals enact sweeping changes, eliminate old
  institutions completely
• Radical Reign of Terror
• Foreign, domestic opposition arises to challenge
  radicals
• Radicals react, remove opponents, seek to
  institutionalize, spread their ideology

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REVOLUTIONS 1750 1914

• American Revolution 1776 1783
• French Revolution 1789 1799
• Haitian Revolution 1793 1802
• Latin American Revolutions 1810 1822
• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, 1820s
• European Revolutions 1820s 1848
• Belgium revolts from Netherlands
• Greece revolts from Ottoman Empire
• French Revolutions in 1830 and 1848
• European Revolutions in 1848 Italy, Central
  Europe
• Polish Revolutions 1830, 1863
• Meiji Restoration (Japan) 1867
• Young Turks (Ottoman Empire) 1908 1920s
• 1st Iranian Revolution 1905
• 1st Russian Revolution 1905
• Mexican Revolution 1910 1920
• Chinese Revolution 1911 1912

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THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

• Tension between Britain, American colonies
• Legacy of Seven Years' War
• British debt, North American tax burden
• Colonists increasingly independent minded
• Colonial protest
• Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
• Colonial boycott of British goods
• Attacks on British officials Boston Tea Party,
  1773
• Political protest over representation in
  Parliament
• Continental Congress, 1774
• British troops, colonial militia skirmished at
  the village of Lexington, 1775
• The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776
• Thirteen united States of America severed ties
  with Britain
• Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's
  theory of government
• The American Revolution, 1775-1781
• British advantages strong government, navy,
  army, loyalists in colonies
• American advantages European allies, George
  Washington's leadership
• Weary of a costly conflict, British forces
  surrendered in 1781
• Building an independent state Constitutional
  Convention, 1787

7
FRENCH REVOLUTION NAPOLEON

• Summoning the Estates General
• Financial crisis half of government revenue went
  to national debt
• King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General
  to raise new taxes
• Many representatives wanted sweeping political
  and social reform
• First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried
  to limit Third Estate (commoners)
• National Assembly
• Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17
  June 1789
• Demanded a written constitution and popular
  sovereignty
• Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked
  insurrections in many cities
• National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the
  Rights of Man and the Citizen"
• "Liberty, equality, and fraternity slogan and
  values of the National Assembly
• The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered
  the role of church
• France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
• The Convention and the Reign of Terror
• Replaced National Assembly under new
  constitution, 1791
• Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to
  restore ancien régime
• Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed
  France a republic
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
  executed, 1793
• Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94
  in "reign of terror"

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THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
9
HAITIAN REVOLUTION

• Saint-Domingue
• Rich French colony on western Hispaniola
• Society dominated by small white planter class
• 90 percent of population were slaves
• Horrendous working conditions
• Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons)
• Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks
• Free blacks fought in American war
• Widespread discontent
• White settlers sought self-governance
• Gens de couleur sought political rights
• Slaves wanted freedom
• Slave revolt began in 1791
• Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur,
  slaves battled each other
• French troops arrived in 1792 British, Spanish
  intervened in 1793
• Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish
  part
• Whites driven into exile, executed
• Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)
• Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment

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LATIN AMERICA

• Stages
• Enlightenment, US Revolution, French Revolution
  influence creoles
• Creoles feel marginalized by peninsulares,
  mercantilism
• French Revolution, Napoleon occupy Iberia
  creoles, peninsulares hate
• Colonies left on their own, begin to make
  decisions without benefit of mother country
• Creoles lead independence movements, form
  militias, resist return of Spain
• Civil wars, turmoil, suffering followed as
  creoles battle Spain for control
• Conservatives take control of new states after
  independence
• Result
• Many newly independent nations
• Mexico Grito de Dolores, Fr. Hidalgo Morelos,
  Iturbide
• South America Simon Bolivar (North), Jose de San
  Martin (Central)
• Brazil Different peaceful split from Portugal,
  new ruler becomes emperor
• Haiti Different a slave revolt, rebellion led
  to independence
• After Independence
• Life for majority of people (mestizos, mulattos,
  Blacks, Indians) little changed, marginalized
• Societies remained largely casted
• Small powerful elite of creole families ruled
  independent states
• Church is part of the government structure
  assists governing elite rise of
  anti-clericalism

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OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION

• Attempt to reform military
• Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808),
  suppression of Janissaries
• Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan
  after revolt
• Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed
  reforms followed
• He built an European-style army, academies,
  schools, roads, and telegraph
• Legal, educational reforms
• Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era
  (1839-1876)
• Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to
  strengthen state
• Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's
  civic code
• State reform of education (1846), free and
  compulsory primary education (1869)
• Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the
  state authority
• Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
• Religious conservatives critical of attack on
  Islamic law and tradition
• Legal equality for minorities resented by some,
  even a few minority leaders
• Young Ottomans wanted more reform freedom,
  autonomy, decentralization
• High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks
  on the sultan's power
• Cycles of reform and repression
• 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a
  constitutional government
• New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909)

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MUSLIM RESISTANCE

• Resistance
• Muslim universities
• Frequently organized education around western
  model
• Educated several generations of students
• Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans
• Often educated in western style universities,
  learned western ideas
• Become source of anti-Western activities even
  while supporting reform
• Revolt in the Sudan
• Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce
  control
• Egypt able to control Nile farmers opposition
  comes from nomads, herders
• Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt,
  overtaxed peasants
• British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery,
  upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
• Muhammad Achmad The Mahdi (1870s)
• Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad
  proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British
  masters
• Wahhabis Reformer A very puritanical form of
  Islam, seeks to purify Islam
• Purge Islam of problems reform, modernize but
  not at expense to Islam
• Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed
  British commander at Khartoum
• Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state
• The Mahdi dies his successor builds an Islamic
  state under rule of Koran

13
QING (MANCHU) CHINA

• Qing China (1622 1911)
• Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria
• To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese,
  Manchu
• Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria
• Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese
• Retained much of Chinese political traditions,
  institutions
• Retained examination system
• Ruled through Confucian scholars
• Qing Army
• Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry
• Unwilling to use modern weapons
• Rot from Within begins in 18th century
• Emperor isolated, ineffective
• Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him
  isolated
• Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing
• Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs,
  harem
• Bureaucracy
• Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and
  conservative
• Examination system riddled with favoritism,
  elitism, cheating

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CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

• The Taiping rebellion
• Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth
  century
• Population grew by 50 percent land and food more
  slowly poverty strained resources
• Other problems official corruption, drug
  addiction
• Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s the
  most dangerous was the Taiping
• The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by
  Hong Xiuquan
• Called for end of Qing dynasty resented Manchu
  rule
• Radical social change no private property,
  footbinding, concubinage
• Popular in southeast China seized Nanjing
  (1853), moved on Beijing
• Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign
  troops
• Gentry sided with government regional armies had
  European weapons
• Taipings defeated in 1864 the war claimed twenty
  to thirty million lives
• Reform frustrated
• The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
• Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European
  industrial technology
• Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries,
  steel foundries, academies
• Not enough industry to make a significant change
• Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes
• The hundred-days reforms (1898)

15
CHINESE REVOLUTION

• Reform Fails
• Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
• Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state,
  humiliating to Chinese
• Chinese leaders
• Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
• Sun Yat-sen
• Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese
  foreign funds
• Wins support of many military officers, foreign
  exiles
• Suns Three Principles of the People
• Nationalism Overthrow Manchus, end foreign
  hegemony
• Democracy Popularly elected republican form of
  government
• People's Livelihood help people, regulate means
  of production, land
• 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei
• Local army rebellion followed by many armies
• Joined by United League members
• 2/3 of provinces join rebels
• 1912
• Last Emperor abdicates
• Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president

16
JAPAN SHOGUN TO EMPEROR

• Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century
• Emperor isolated, secluded shogun military
  dictator
• Centralized bureaucracy alliances with feudal
  lords
• Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider
  world
• Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a
  year
• Crisis
• Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising
  rice prices
• All led to protests and rebellions
• Reforms and ideas conflict
• Government Neo-Confucian conservative reforms
• Dutch Learning Support western studies, reforms,
  working with west anti-Chinese
• National Studies praised Japanese traditions,
  emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism
• Foreign pressure on Japan
• European wanted her to reverse long-standing
  closed door policy
• Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for
  whaling fleets
• 1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the
  right of entry rebuffed
• 1853
• U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo
  Bay, demanded entry
• Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with
  U.S., other western countries

17
RUSSIA EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE

• Post-1812
• Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as
  threat to old order
• Government introduced reforms to improve
  bureaucracy
• Made an alliance with the conservative powers of
  Europe to maintain order
• December Uprising 1825
• Death of Alexander I prompted some
  western-oriented officers to rebel
• Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar
• Nicholas I
• Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
• State became very repressive, secret police
• Policeman of Europe used army to suppress
  revolutions
• Suppressed rebellion in Poland
• Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic
  problems
• Serfdom Issue
• Russia needed work force in order to industrial
• Serfdom not efficient
• Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic
  development
• Gap between western, eastern Europe economic
  systems

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RUSSIAN REPRESSION MARXISM

• Cycles of protest and repression
• Peasants
• Often landless, no political power
• Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
• Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as
  frustration heightened
• Population increased as potato introduced,
  increasing pressures on society
• Social Protest
• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity
  increased in 1870s
• Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights,
  political representation
• Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and
  anarchism, recruited in countryside
• Repression by tsarist authorities secret police,
  censorship
• Russification sparked ethnic nationalism,
  attacks on Jews tolerated
• Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
• Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a
  Russian perspective
• Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
• Most opposed westernization, autocracy,
  capitalism
• Many became peasant anarchists
• Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by
  a bomb in 1881
• Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive,
  conservative ruler

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MARXISMWorkerswill stage arevolution and
overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISMWill only
succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup
ofrevolutionaries
20
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

• Russian Revolution of 1905
• Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese
  War was cause
• Russia always diverted domestic tension by short,
  successful wars
• In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman
  Empire
• Massive protests followed news of defeat
• Workers mounted general strikes in St.
  Petersburg, Moscow
• Peasant insurrections in countryside against
  landlords
• Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
• Bloody Sunday massacre
• Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to
  ask tsar for help
• Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
• Peasants seized landlords' property, killed
  landlords
• Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in
  cities, factories
• Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists
  Marxists marginalized
• Sought to achieve ends without full scale
  revolution
• A Fizzled Revolution
• Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the
  Duma
• Many parties elected with conflicting interests
• Unable, unwilling to cooperate

21
NATIONALISM IMPERIALISM

• Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism
• Source of national pride, strength to acquire
  colonies
• Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist
• Many studied in Western schools, learned western
  knowledge to get ahead
• Many defined their sense of nation as response to
  imperialism
• India
• Two types of state-structures in India
• Princely States States ruled by Indian princes,
  assisted by British officials
• British possessions States ruled directly by
  British
• Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern
  India"
• Sought an Indian society based on European
  science and traditional Hinduism
• Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and
  advance reform
• The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
• Educated Indians met, with British approval, to
  discuss public affairs
• Congress aired grievances about colonial rule,
  sought Indian self-rule
• 1906, All-India Muslim League
• Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
• Limited reform, 1909
• Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to
  local councils

22
IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911

• Causes
• Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would
  have to limit Shahs power
• Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian
  territory upset Iranians
• Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament
• 1905 A year of demonstrations and strikes
• Parliamentarians tended to be educated,
  merchants, clerics, young
• Introduced the constitutional concept of
  government
• People were sovereign and their representatives
  were delegated to enact the laws
• Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts
  constitutional limitations
• 1906
• Constitutionalists failed to protect victory
  against domestic, international threats
• Trade Russian influence for British control
• Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to
  respect constitution
• 1907-1908
• UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into spheres
  of influence
• Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow
  constitution
• Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced
  to abdicate, flees
• Spheres of influence
• Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31,
  1907

23
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920

• The Revolution (1910-1920)
• Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow
  Diaz
• Class Factions
• 1910-1914 all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta
• 1914-20 Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa
• Regional Revolutions North, South, Yucatan
• Course of the Revolution
• Liberal Middle Class Leaders
• Francisco Madero rules at first
• Seeks middle class constitutional democracy
• Opposes land reform landless peasants attack
  large landowners
• Peasant armies win pitched battles against
  government troops
• General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills
  Madero
• Venustiano Carranza
• Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon
• US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta
  resigns
• Peasant, Common Rebels
• Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially
  landless peasants
• Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the
  Southern areas he controls

24
CHINESE REVOLUTION

• Reform Fails
• Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
• Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state,
  humiliating to Chinese
• Chinese leaders
• Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
• Sun Yat-sen
• Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese
  foreign funds
• Wins support of many military officers, foreign
  exiles
• Suns Three Principles of the People
• Nationalism Overthrow Manchus, end foreign
  hegemony
• Democracy Popularly elected republican form of
  government
• People's Livelihood help people, regulate means
  of production, land
• 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei
• Local army rebellion followed by many armies
• Joined by United League members
• 2/3 of provinces join rebels
• 1912
• Last Emperor abdicates
• Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president