Sciences and Applications (S

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Sciences and Applications (SA)
Sciences bring ideas, concepts and discoveries
together and their applications lead to
technologies. The research and development (RD)
of nuclear technologies were red hot, and they
have matured. SA of stone, metal and steel lead
to tools for ancient people.SA of gun powder
powered ancient heroes and empires.SA of steam
engine revolutionised industry in Europe.SA of
X-rays changed medical diagnoses and
sciences.SA of radioactivity opened new
frontiers. SA of fission and fusion promised
power for war and peace.SA of nuclear phenomena
led to many nuclear technologies. Yet RDs
brought new challenges.
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Nuclear Technologies
X-rays give penetrating vision to inner
structures under cover.X-rays and computers give
4-D images of wholes. X-ray diffraction
enables us to determine crystal and molecular
structures, including those of DNA.Ionizing
radiation effects and sterilization empower
industries.Radioactive decay kinetics enables
dating.Radioactivity causes and cures
illness.Nuclear reactions led to nuclide and
element synthesis.Pair productions give
positrons and electrons for accelerators.Positron
-electron annihilations tell stories of organ
functions. Nuclear reactions activate atoms and
nuclides in microscopic samples.Fission and
fusion energy for war and peace.
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Radiology
Radiology is a scientific discipline dealing with
medical imaging using ionizing radiation,
radionuclides, nuclear magnetic resonance, and
ultrasound. The following procedures are
currently widely available
Central Nervous System Brain,Spine Cardiovascular
System heart, blood vessels Musculoskeletal
System bone, muscles, and joints Digestive,
Urinary, and Respiratory System intestines,
kidneys, liver, stomach, lungs Reproductive
System and Mammography male and female
reproductive organs and breasts
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X-ray Tubes
Top X-ray tubes for industry and
sciences.Right Non-destructive testing X-ray
tubes for X-ray Inspection and X-ray Baggage
Inspection and Thickness Gauging.There are
hundreds of X-ray tubes for medical
applications. Image from prd004-5 of Varian.
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X-ray Imaging
Absorption of X-ray and gamma-ray by different
material for image today, 2-dimensional solid
state detectors are used in place of films for
X-ray and gamma-ray imaging as shown in this
image by Varian Image of female from
www.varian.com/xry/prd004.html
Other imaging techniques Ultrasound - images due
to speed of amounts of sound energyMagnetic
resonance - magnetic properties of H used for
imagingElastography - shows localized strain
levels in tissue produced in response to small
axial external applied compressions
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Mammography and CT Scan
X-rays provide the sharpest images of the
breast's inner structure. Mammogram detects small
tumors and changes in the breast tissues.
Computed tomography (CT), scanner takes images by
rotating an x-ray tube around the body while
measuring the constantly changing absorption of
the x-ray beam by different tissues in your body.
The sensitive scanner provides small differences
in absorption of the beam by various tissues. The
information is fed into a computer which
reconstruct images of thin cross sections of the
body.
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A transaxial image of a Stradivarius violin
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DEXA duel energy X-ray absorptiometry
Dual energy X-ray absorptometry (DEXA) is also
called dual x-ray absorptometry (DXA). A high and
a low energy x-ray beams pass through the bone
and the difference in absorption is used to
estimate the bone mineral density.
Bone mineral density (BMD) is an indication of of
bone mass. BMD generally correlates with bone
strength and its ability to bear weight. Low BMS
is osteoporosis with risk of easy bone fracture.
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Impact of X-ray Diffraction
This is one of the diffraction X-ray tubes with
beryllium windows by Varian, operating at 60 keV,
1500 - 2000 wats, target W, Mo, Cu, and Cr,
(3000 each). Using X-ray diffraction, nearly all
structure of compounds artificially made or
isolated from nature have been determined,
including structures of semiconductors, DNA
molecules, and proteins. Structure data banks
serve science, technologies, and medicine.
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X-ray Diffraction Results
Two X-ray diffraction patterns are shownTop
diffraction pattern from Al-wire recorded on a
film revealing preferred orientation and size of
micro-crystals in the wire.Bottom X-ray
diffraction pattern of a single crystal showing
positive image of X-ray beams. Intensities of
these beams allows us to determine molecular and
crystal structures. Various data banks of
structures are now available for research and
development.
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X-ray Diffraction Results
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Positron Emission Tomography
Positron emitting nuclides 11C, 13N, 15O, and 18F
are attached to compounds as probes. They are
injected into a patient, the probe or its
metabolites will be accumulated in certain area
facilitated by the specific function of certain
organs. The annihilation of positron emits two
511keV gamma rays at opposite directions. The
detectors in these machines can detect the
location of the probes or metabolites of the
probes, and thus understand the functionality of
various organs. The function of the organs
provides better diagnosis than CT.
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Nuclides and Probes for PET
The nuclides mentioned previously are synthesized
by these nuclear reaction with particles from
accelerators such as cyclotrons.
Production Half life Sample Dosage Function 14N(p,
a) 11C 20 min acetate 20 mCi Metabolism and
blood 16O(p, a) 13N 10 min ammonia 25
mCi Myocardial Perfusion 14N(d, n) 15O 2 min
water 50 mCi Brain blood flow 18O(p, n) 18F 110
min F- ion 5 mCi Bone function 18O(p, n) 18F 110
min FDG 10 mCi Myocardial viability
FluoroDeoxyGlucose
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Radionuclide in Medicine
Radionuclides are used in imaging for diagnosis
and treatment. In addition to PET, there are
other nuclides specifically accumulated in organs
for image and diagnoses. Radionuclide therapy
selectively deliver radiation doses in target
tissues. Radiopharmaceuticals - DNA, sugar,
protein, and drug molecules, eg. 131I or
I-MIBG Radionuclide therapy still finds itself in
a last position among other treatments.
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Radionuclide 131I
131I is for thyroid cancer treatment. Production
130Te (n, b) 131I or from isolate from fission
products Decay g, 364 (81) 337 (7.3) and 284
KeV (6), and b 610 KeV to stable 131Xe.
Half-life 8.04 days Preparation NaI in gelatine
capsule or solution for oral administration, and
solution for IV injection After oral
administration, 90 is absorbed in the upper
gastrointestinal tract, mostly accumulated in the
thyroid compartment. Accumulation is high for
cancerous cells. Effective half-life is 0.43 days
for 40 and 7 days for 60.
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123I, 99mTc and 131I Scan
123I electron capture decay energy 1.24 MeV, t½
13.27 hr99mTc, 0.143 MeV ? (IT), t½ 6.01 hr The
shorter t½ of  123I allows a lower radiation dose
than using 131I. 99mTc as pertechnetate, TcO4?-,
is rapped by the thyroid iodide concentrating
mechanism but is not incorporated into organic
form. 123I is trapped and organified by thyroid
tissues. Usual dose is 200 to 400 ?Ci by mouth
 or intravenous route. The 13-hour half life
makes it suitable for imaging upto 24 hrs using
the gamma camera. This image shows a cold
nodule on the left ?
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Indications of Endocrine Nuclear Medicine

1. Determination of thyroid size, function, and
   position.
2. Evaluation of functional status of thyroid
   nodules.
3. Evaluation of thyroid and neck masses.
4. Evaluation of patients with history of head and
   neck irradiation.
5. Quantitative thyroid uptake (I-131 uptake).
6. Detection of ectopic thyroid tissues such as
   substernal or sublingual locations of thyroid
   tissue (I-123).
7. Treatment for hyperthyroidism, neoplasm (I-131).
8. Detection of thyroid metastases and assessment of
   response to therapy (I-131)
   uic.edu/com/uhrd/nucmed/tyroid.htm

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Radionuclide 131I-MIBG
131I-iodine-meta-iodobenzylguanidine 131I-MIBG is
the approved name. 131I-MIBG is selectively
taken up by normal adrenergic tissues, such as
the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic autonomic
nervous system, and by tumours of these
neuroectodermally derived tissues. A dose of
100-300 mCi of 131I-MIBG with a high specific
activity (up to 1.48 GBq/mg) is administered
intravenously over a 0.5 to 4 hour
period. Ionizing radiation kills cancer cells.
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Radionuclide 32P
Sodium phosphate Na332PO4 32P is a pure beta
emitter, with maximum and average beta energy of
1.71 and 0.695 MeV respectively, range in tissues
3 mm to 8 mm, half-life 14.3 days. Once IV
injected, the phosphate is incorporated into
proliferating and protein synthesizing cells as
well as into cortical bone. The biological
half-life in bone marrow is 7-9 days. Phosphate
is actively incorporated into the nucleic acids
of rapidly proliferating cells. It suppresses
hyperproliferative cell lines rather than to
eradicate them.
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Implant of Radionuclide
Radionuclides are encapsulated in plastics and
surgically implanted close to cancerous cells to
deliver 2 Sv of dosage to these cells for a few
days. Intra-cavity implant and interstitial
implant are used. Brachytherapy combined with CT
and PET results in precise and effective
implantations. Typical radionuclides are125I,
low energy radiation confined to small
region.226Ra, half life 1600 y, alpha, 4.78 MeV,
gamma from Rn 0.184 MeV137Cs half life 34.4 h,
and 137mCs Half-life 9 h, positron, EC, and gamma
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History of Nuclear Midicine
1985 discovery of X-rays 1934 discovery of
artificial radioactivity 1937 artificial
radioactivity was used to treat leukemia at UC
Berkeley 1946 use of radioactive iodine cured
thyroid cancer 1948 Abbott Laboratories began
distribution of radioistopes 1950s radioactive
iodine was widely used to diagnose and treat
thyroid 1953 Gordon Brownell and H.H. Sweet
built a positron detector 1971 - The American
Medical Association officially recognized nuclear
medicine as a medical speciality
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About Nuclear Medicine
There are nearly 100 different nuclear medicine
imaging procedures available today. Nuclear
medicine uniquely provides information about both
the function and structure of virtually every
major organ system within the body. There are
approximately 2,700 full-time equivalent nuclear
medicine physicians and 14,000 certified nuclear
medicine technologists in the U.S. In
Kitchener-Waterloo, the nuclear medicine unit is
in the St. Mary Hospital.
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Nuclear Medicine Applications
Neurologic Diagnose stroke, alzheimers disease,
localize seizure foci, evaluate post
concussion Oncologic Tumor localization,
staging, and response to treatments Orthopedic
Evaluate bone, arthritic changes, and extent of
tumors Renal Detect urinary tract obstruction
and measure renal functions Cardiac Diagnose
coronary artery, measure effectiveness of bypass
surgery, identify patients of high risk heart
attack, and diagnose heart attacks Pulmonary
Measure lung functions Other Diagnose and Treat
Hyperthyroidism (Grave's Disease)
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Irradiation Sterilization
Irradiation by ionizing radiation kills bacteria
and cells. This effect has been applied for the
following areas sterilize medical
equipment sterilize consumer products such as
baby bottle, pacifiers, hygiene products, hair
brush, sewage sterilize common home and industry
products food preservation
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Irradiation for Food Processing
Soon after discovery, X-rays were used to kill
insects and their eggs. After WWII, spent fuel
rod were used to sterilize food, but soon, 60Co
was found easier to use in th 1950s. The US army
played a key role in R D of food processing,
and soon other countries followed. In 1958, USSR
granted irradiation of potatoes for sprout
inhibition. Canada granted irradiation of
potatoes, onions, wheat, dry spices. At 1980
meeting, a committee considered a dose of 10 kGy
safe. However, food processing has many other
problems such as regulation, labelling, marketing
and public acceptance to deal with.
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Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
Neutron activation analysis is a multi-, major-,
minor-, and trace-element analytical method for
the accurate and precise determination of
elemental concentrations in materials. Sensitivit
y for certain elements are below nanogram
level. The method is based on the detection and
measurement of characteristic gamma rays emitted
from radioactive isotopes produced in the sample
upon irradiation with neutrons. High resolution
germanium semiconductor detector gives specific
information about elements.
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The NAA Method
Material for NAA
Neutron Source
Prompt g rays
Material original
b rays
radioactive nuclides
g rays
Data analysis and results reporting
Gamma-ray spectrometer
Block diagrams of the NAA method
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Application of NAA
Aluminum Gadolinium Neodymium Sodium Antimony
Gallium Nickel Strontium Arsenic Germanium
Niobium Tantalum Barium Gold Osmium
Tellurium Bromine Hafnium Palladium Terbium
Cadmium Indium Platinum Thorium Cerium
Iodine Potassium Thulium Cesium Iridium
Praseodymium Tin Chlorine Iron Rhenium
Titanium Chromium Lanthanum Rubidium
Tungsten Cobalt Lutetium Ruthenium Uranium
Copper Magnesium Samarium Vanadium
Dysprosium Manganese Scandium Ytterbium
Erbium Mercury Selenium Zinc Europium
Molybdenum Silver Zirconium
Elements (60) listed here are routinely analyzed
by the NAA center in Cornell University. It
analyzed samples from agriculture, archaeology,
engineering, geology, medicine, to oceanography,
serving various disciplines and
industries. osp.cornell.edu/vpr/ward/NAA.html
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Canadian NAA Facilities
The (Safe LOW POwer Kritical Experiment)SLOWPOKE
reactor in the University of Toronto offers
instrumental neutron activation analysis
services. It has an on site gamma-ray
spectrometer for the analysis. The experimental
nuclear reactor in McMaster University Nuclear
Reactor (MNR) began operating in 1959 as the
first university based research reactor in the
British Commonwealth. It offers nuclear dating,
NAA, and neutron radiography.
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Raiocarbon Dating
Carbon consists of 0.989 12C, 0.011 13C, and
1e-12 14C in equilibrium due to its production in
the atmosphere. The 14C half-life is 5730 years.
Thus, number of 14C atom in 1 g of C is N
6.022e231.3e-12 / 12 6.5e10 14C/g C Activity
6.5e10 ln(2) / (5730365.252460) 15 dpm/g
of C Thus, by measuring specific decay rate of
carbon enable us to estimate the period in which
the sample was not actively exchange carbon with
the atmosphere. Tree-ring chronology indicated
some variation of 14C level, and correction
factors give reasonable estimates. For example,
the scrolls from the Dead Sea was 14C dated to be
2000 years old.
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Raiocarbon Formation and Exchange
Cosmic rays
14N
n
proton
14C
14CO2
CO2
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Physical Data of 14C
Beta energy 156keV (maximum), 49 keV (ave) Half
life 5730 y Biological half life 12 dEffective
half life 12 d (unbound) 40 d (bound) Max. beta
range in air 24 cmMax. beta range in water 0.28
mm Fraction of 14C beta transmitted through dead
layer of skin at 0.07 cm depth is 1
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Radiopotassium 40K Dating
Radiopotassium 40K decays to stable 40Ar. Thus,
by measuring relative ratio of 40K and 40Ar in
rocks enable us to determine the age of rocks
since its formation.The half life of 40K is
1.25e9 y.
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Nuclear Technologies
X-rays give penetrating vision to inner
structures under cover.X-rays and computers give
4-D images of wholes. X-ray diffraction
enables us to determine crystal and molecular
structures, including those of DNA.Ionizing
radiation effects and sterilization empower
industries.Radioactive decay kinetics enables
dating.Radioactivity causes and cures
illness.Nuclear reactions led to nuclide and
element synthesis.Pair productions give
positrons and electrons for accelerators.Positron
-electron annihilations tell stories of organ
functions. Nuclear reactions activate atoms and
nuclides in microscopic samples.Fission and
fusion energy for war and peace.