7th/8th Review Project Collection

1
7th/8th Review Project Collection
2

• LO 1.29. The student is able to describe the
  reasons for revisions of scientific hypotheses of
  the origin of life on Earth.
• SP 6.3. The student can articulate the reasons
  that scientific explanations and theories are
• refined or replaced.
• Explanation. Science is constantly changing. We
  are continually gaining knowledge about life on
  Earth, partly due to the development of new
  technologies. Experimental investigations allow
  us to learn about the origin of life on earth.
  With the help of previous learned knowledge and
  current technologies, more details and
  information can be gathered about life on Earth
  and how life came to be. Conclusions can be
  drawn from looking at historical evidence and
  past experiments, as well as current findings and
  explorations. Because more and more information
  is found by scientific research everyday,
  revisions to hypotheses are often made because
  previous hypotheses are proven to be incorrect or
  in need of revisions.In scientific research,
  making a hypothesis is an important step before
  performing an experiment or conducting research
  because it addresses the purpose of the
  experiment and helps the student to apply current
  knowledge and the historical background of the
  claim with future expectations.
• MC Question
• Hypotheses are made before every science
  exploration or experiment. As time progresses and
  science advances, more knowledge about the origin
  of life on Earth becomes known. With more
  knowledge available, scientific hypotheses are
  revised over time because some information is
  proven false, inconclusive, or just not as
  detailed as it could be. There are always new
  improvements with science. Listed below are 4
  scientific hypotheses about the origin of life on
  earth. Which of the following represents a
  possible hypothesis of the origin of life using
  up-to-date and current knowledge
• A)Life on Earth originated at photosynthetically-a
  ctive porous structures, similar to deep-sea
  hydrothermal vents, made of zinc sulfide (more
  commonly known as phosphor).
• B)Prions were a first model for life on earth.
• C)The early Earth had a reducing atmosphere,
  which meant it had large amounts of hydrogen and
  almost no oxygen.
• D)RNA alone triggered the rise of life from a sea
  of molecules.
• E)Parasites are the model for first life
• Free Response Question
• Suppose you live in the era where Earths
  atmosphere was thought to be made up of just
  oxygen. Describe how you would revise this
  hypothesis with knowledge of the 21st Century.
  What makes this hypothesis so outdated? Support
  with an example of an important gas found in the
  atmosphere and its purpose in life. Why are
  theories and hypotheses constantly changing in
  our world?

References http//undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_
0/howscienceworks_06 http//echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE
/mod_2/chapt_3/main.htm http//www.cawcr.gov.au/p
rojects/climatechange/challengesCoasts.shtml
3
MC Question Answer/Explanation A)It is argued
that under the high pressure of a
carbon-dioxide-dominated atmosphere, zinc sulfide
structures could form on the surface of the first
continents, where they had access to sunlight.
This is an updated hypothesis. You can tell
because new knowledge about certain chemicals and
gases is incorporated and applied to the origin
of life hypothesis. B) Prions were not one of
the first models on earth because they can only
replicate by causing proteins made by a cell to
become misshaped C) An oxygen-poor atmosphere
would have resulted in an atmosphere full of
carbon monoxide, noxious methane, hydrogen
sulfide, and ammonia, making life on earth
difficult and deadly. D)RNA is a very complex
molecule that is unlikely to have arisen
prebiotically. Also, RNA is also considered
inherently unstable. E)A parasite can not be one
of the first life models because in order for a
parasite to survive, it needs another cell. Free
Response Answer Suppose you live in the era where
Earths atmosphere was thought to be made up of
just oxygen. Describe how you would revise this
hypothesis with knowledge of the 21st Century.
What makes this hypothesis so outdated? Support
with an example of an important gas found in the
atmosphere and its purpose in life. Why are
theories and hypotheses constantly changing in
our world? The earths atmosphere is now known
to have many key components. The atmosphere is
made up of 79 Nitrogen, 20 oxygen and 1 of
other gases. If there was no nitrogen(also
considered a buffer gas), then the atmosphere
would be made up of only oxygen and that would
cause combustible material on earth to explode
from even a tiny spark. Living organisms also
require nitrogen, which is an essential component
of proteins and nucleic acids, for example. This
hypothesis must be revised to say that the
earths atmosphere is made up of more than just
oxygen, but also other key elements necessary for
life, such as nitrogen. The old hypothesis is
outdated because the information is incorrect and
relatively vague. Today, we have so much more
knowledge of different elements and gases and how
they interact in the circle of life. Theories and
hypotheses are constantly changing because new
information and knowledge is discovered every
day. Some new information proves previous
hypotheses/theories incorrect, other new
information may not be entirely incorrect, but
more developed from improvements in technology
and have greater details and proof.

4

• LO 3.48 The student is able to create a visual
  representation to describe how nervous systems
  detect external and internal signals.
• SP 1.1 The student can create representation
  and models of natural or man-made phenomena and
  systems in the domain.
• Explanation The neuron is the basic unit in
  the nervous system. A labeled model of a neuron
  is shown in an image below. The dendrites bring
  the signal, whether its external or internal,
  toward the cell body. From the cell body, the
  signal travels down the axon while the myelin
  sheath insulates the axon. This is done through
  an action potential when the sodium channels
  allow enough sodium into the neuron where it
  becomes -55mV and a nerve impulse is fired. The
  neuron must re-polarize itself by opening the
  potassium channels to regulate the cell back to
  -70mV. The cell remains at a constant -70mV
  with the help of the Na/K pumps that use ATP to
  make sure the concentration is the same on both
  sides of the membrane. The impulse then travels
  down the axon until it reaches the synapse. The
  voltage-gated ion channels open to allow calcium
  to make the neurotransmitters cross
• the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptor on
  the postsynaptic cell. It will
• allow sodium to come in or potassium to leave
  and then the channels will close.
• M.C. Question Which of the following happens
  when the action potential reaches
• the terminus of the pre-synaptic cell?
• A) The ligand-gated ion channels open
• B) Allow potassium to leave the cell
• C) It depolarizes the cell
• D) The voltage-gated calcium channels open
• Learning Log/ FRQ-Style Question Explain what
  happens
• when the doctor taps your knee and causes your
  lower leg to
• jerk and start swinging. (CUES reflexes, quads,
  sensory
• neurons, brain, spinal chord, motor neurons)

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Answer Key- LO 3.48

• M.C. Question Which of the following happens
  when the action potential reaches the terminus
  of the pre-synaptic cell?
• A) The ligand-gated ion channels open
• B) Allow potassium to leave the cell
• C) It depolarizes the cell
• D) The voltage-gated calcium channels open
• Explain what happens when the doctor taps your
  knee and causes your lower leg to jerk and start
  swinging. (CUES reflexes, quads, sensory
  neurons, brain, spinal chord, motor neurons)
• When the doctors hits your knee, sensors detect a
  stretch in your quad muscle which makes sensory
  neurons send a signal to your spinal chord. The
  signal is split to influence the motor neurons.
  Therefore when the sensory neurons contracts the
  quad the motor neurons make the hamstring relax.
  Even though there are many different processes
  going on the signal never ends up reaching the
  brain. This is why there is a reflex when your
  doctor hits you in the correct place on the knee.

6
Learning Objective 4.7 The student is able to
refine representations to illustrate how
interactions between external stimuli and gene
expression result in specialization of cells,
tissues, and organs. Science Practice 1.3 The
student can refine representations and models of
natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the
domain.
Statement Cells specialize their function and
structure through the stimulation and repression
of coding DNA sequences by regulatory proteins.
Regulatory proteins are coded from regulatory
genes, any sequence of DNA that codes for
regulator proteins or RNA. Regulatory proteins
can be activated by external stimuli such as
temperature or nutrient levels in the cytoplasm,
increasing or decreasing the rate of prevalence
for a protein that is transcribed by a particular
gene sequence as the genes has other regulatory
proteins bound or unbound to it in response to
the stimuli. During the process of
specialization, the external environment of a
cell has an important effect on the development
on that cell. Ligands produced by other cells
bind with membrane bound receptors to activate
signal transduction pathways and cause cellular
responses through induction. These cellular
reaction generating molecules also exist in the
cell that is being affected, with their presence
creating a cycle of development as the proteins
their genes code for elicit more responses in
conjunction with external molecules in order to
specialize the cell. Specialization is the
changing of function and structure of a cell for
the greatest efficiency in a performing a
particular task in conjunction with other cells
to form a specific type of tissue. As an example
of the effect of environmental stimuli on
specialization, take into account a pair of
identical twins. Since the twins are identical,
they share the same genes. If, however, one of
the twins was several inches taller with
noticeably darker skin tone and as such exhibited
a difference in phenotype despite having the same
genes. Both of these traits would be caused by an
environmental stimulus or condition that affected
gene expression rather than solely being affected
by the cells internal environment. For specific
cellular specialization, neurons could be taken
for an example. Neurons are structurally adapted
for sending electrical impulses and for
communication, being elongated with numerous
dendrites and axon terminals for multiple
connections to other neurons. Their interior
chemical environment is different, specialized
for sodium and potassium flow for action
potentials to be sent.
Other factors
http//www.biologyjunction.com/images/whatis.jpg
7
Review Questions
This muscular tissue, a collection of muscle
cells, does not resemble the typical image of a
cell presented by the media. Name two advantages
muscle cells have by having this structure. In
addition, name an internal adaptation that muscle
cells to more effectively perform their task.

• Induction is the process of cells sending signals
  into their environment to affect the development
  of nearby cells through signal transduction
  pathways. What is true about this process?
• Signals produced by neighboring cells suppress
  transcription of regulatory genes during
  development.
• Signals produced by neighboring cells stimulate
  transcription of regulatory genes during
  development.
• Signals produced by neighboring cells either
  promote or suppress transcription of regulatory
  genes during development.
• Signals produced by neighboring cells create
  positive feedback loops to influence their own
  development.

http//medicalpicturesinfo.com/muscle-cell/
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Answer key
This muscular tissue, a collection of muscle
cells, does not resemble the typical image of a
cell presented by the media. Describe two
advantages muscle cells have by having this
structure. In addition, name an internal
adaptation that muscle cells to more effectively
perform their task and describe how it improves
function. The elongated design of muscle cells
allows for the extended contraction and extension
of muscles, and are lengthy to reach across the
extent of bones so that they are able to pull
them. Muscle fibers are thick and are able to
endure more stress than other cells and are
comparatively more difficult to damage because
they have to regularly move. Muscle cells have
increased concentrations of mitochondria within
their cytoplasm to compensate for their high
levels of energy use, they must produce ATP in
larger amounts in order to function.

• Induction is the process of cells sending signals
  into their environment to affect the development
  of nearby cells through signal transduction
  pathways. What is true about this process?
• A. Signals produced by neighboring cells suppress
  transcription of regulatory genes during
  development.
• B. Signals produced by neighboring cells
  stimulate transcription of regulatory genes
  during development.
• C. Signals produced by neighboring cells either
  promote or suppress transcription of regulatory
  genes during development.
• D. Signals produced by neighboring cells create
  positive feedback loops to influence their own
  development

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LO 3.11 The student is able to evaluate evidence
provided by data sets to support the claim that
heritable information is passes from one
generation to another generation through mitosis,
or meiosis followed by fertilization. SP 5.3 The
student can evaluate the evidence provided by
data sets in relation to a particular scientific
question. ExplanationThe transmission of
genetic information is passed from one generation
to the next through sexual reproduction. Genetic
variation is the result of sexual reproduction
because new combinations of genetic information
are created, due to the activity of chromosomes
during meiosis. Genetic material is divided
during nuclear division either through the
process of mitosis or meiosis. Meiosis, a
reduction division, produces haploid gametes that
are each genetically different from the parent
cell and each other. These haploid cells produced
are gametes. When the gametes fuse together
fertilization occurs. This then gives rise to a
diploid cell known as the zygote. The zygote will
then divide by mitosis in order to produce a
multicellular organism. Multiple Choice
QuestionWhich of the following statement (s)
are false concerning the inheritance of genetic
information via mitosis?A) The daughter cell
chromosomes are identical to the parent cell B)
The daughter cells of mitosis are haploidC) The
daughter cells of mitosis are diploidD)
Variation of inherited material is introduced via
crossing in mitosis

• Learning Log Question
• Normal human somatic cells contain 46
  chromosomes. One set of 23 is derived from the
  mother, while the other set is from the father.
  
• A) After a cell undergoes mitosis, how many
  chromosomes will the cell contain?
• B) After meiosis takes place, how many cells will
  be produced and how many chromosomes will they
  contain?
• C) How is genetic variation attained through
  sexual reproduction via fertilization?

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Answer Key- LO 3.11

• Which of the following statement (s) are false
  concerning the inheritance of genetic information
  via mitosis?A) The daughter cell chromosomes are
  identical to the parent cell B) The daughter
  cells of mitosis are haploidC) The daughter
  cells of mitosis are diploidD) Variation of
  inherited material is introduced via crossing in
  mitosis
• Learning Log Question
• Normal human somatic cells contain 46
  chromosomes. One set of 23 is derived from the
  mother, while the other set is from the father.
  
• A) After a cell undergoes mitosis, how many
  chromosomes will the cell contain?
• B) After meiosis takes place, how many cells will
  be produced and how many chromosomes will they
  contain?
• C) How is genetic variation attained through
  sexual reproduction via fertilization?
• Answers
• The cell will contain 46 chromosomes because two
  genetically identical cells are produced.
• Four daughter cells are produced, containing half
  as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
  Therefore, 23 chromosomes are in these gametes.
• During meiosis crossing over can occur. Crossing
  over is when homologous chromatids exchange
  genetic information. Also, the random nature of
  fertilization only increases the genetic
  variation. For an example, each female and male
  gamete represents one out of approximately 8
  million chromosome combinations.

11
SP1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
LO4.1 The student is able to create a
representation that describes how organisms
exchange information in response to internal
changes and external cues, and which can result
in changes in behavior.
Explanation For example, plants communicate and
exchange information through the release of
chemicals. The roots exchange gases with the air
spaces of soil, then take in oxygen and
discharging CO2, while cellular respiration
breaks down sugars. Information in response to
internal changes and external cues are detected
by receptors at first. If the plant does not
receive enough light, or photosynthesis, the
plant will respond negatively. Without light or
water the plant would slowly shrivel up, but if
the shoot reaches sunlight, it will begin to
green, or de-etiolation. This relationship is
extremely important for the plants survival.
M.C. Question Which of the following statements
concerning Photosystem II is false? A) During the
electron transport chain 2NADP to 2NADPH is not
reduced. B) Uses light energy to oxidize two
molecules of water into one molecule of molecular
oxygen. C) Absorbs photons of a wavelength of
680 nm D) During the electron transport process a
proton gradient is generated across the thylakoid
membrane.
Learning Log/FRQ-style Question List 2 examples
of stimuli that plants react to and then describe
the process that occurs in great detail.
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Answer Key- LO 3.41

• Which of the following statements concerning
  Photosystem II is false?
• A) During the electron transport chain 2NADP to
  2NADPH is not reduced.
• B) Uses light energy to oxidize two molecules of
  water into one molecule of molecular oxygen.
• C) Absorbs photons of a wavelength of 680 nm
• D) During the electron transport process a proton
  gradient is generated across the thylakoid
  membrane
• Explanation The correct answer is A because the
  4 electrons removed from the water molecules are
  transferred by an electron transport chain to
  reduce 2NADP to 2NADPH.

List 2 examples of stimuli that plants react to
and then describe the process that occurs in
great detail. One example of a stimuli that
plants react to is Hydrotropism, which is the
plants response to water. When hydrotropism
occurs the roots can grow towards water
(positive) or the shoots can grow away from water
(negative). Auxins, a plant hormone is what
correlates this growth. They play a huge role is
the bending of the plants. Another example is
Phototropism, which is a plants response to
light. Light is very important for the survival
of plants, and photosynthesis take place in the
chloroplast of plants. The chemical equation for
photosynthesis is CO2 H2O light energy
------gt C6H12O6 O2 energy. Once
photosynthesis takes place, carbon dioxide is
converted into organic compounds, which are then
used for the reproduction and growth of plants.
http//www.plant-and-flower-guide.com/phototropism
.html
13
LO 2.34 The student is able to describe the role
of programmed cell death in development and
differentiation, the reuse of molecules, and the
maintenance of dynamic homeostasis.
SP 7.1 The student can connect phenomena and
models across spatial and temporal
scales Explanation Apoptosis is the body
sending a signal to a cell, causing the cell to
die. The formation of digits is determined by
this programmed cell death of the interdigital
regions between the digits. Separation of the
cartilaginous condensations which are to become
digits depend on the death of the mesenchymal
cells that are in between these cells . This
allows the adjacent cells to differentiate into
the specific , individual digit or finger on the
hand rather than be connected by webbing. This is
why early developing fetuses have webbing between
their fingers. When the cell undergoes apoptosis
a specific enzyme will break down the proteins,
organelles, and DNA. These parts are digested by
vesicles and reused as building blocks for new
cells. Apoptosis plays a vital role in the
maintaining homeostasis as if it occurs too much
or too little can lead to cancer or disease. For
example if the DNA of a cell is damaged and
cannot be repaired the cell must perform
apoptosis or risk the defect being replicated and
spread to other cells. MC Question Which of
the following will trigger a cell major caspase
activation pathway causing apoptosis? A-cAMP B-
cytocines C- cytochrome C D- apoptase FR
Question What medical problems could arise from
the disruption of programmed cell death? Explain
why these problems would occur?
14
Answer Key- LO 2.34

• MC Question Which of the following will
  trigger a cell major caspase activation pathway
  causing apoptosis?
• A-cAMP
• B- cytokines
• C- cytochrome C
• D- apoptase
• What medical problems could arise from the
• disruption of programmed cell death? Explain
• why these problems would occur?
• Some problems associated with disruption in
• programmed cell death are cancer, ALS, and
• huntingtons disease. Cancer can occur if
• programmed cell death does not occur as
• frequently as it should. This is because a cell,
  which has a defect of some sort that should
  undergo apoptosis, does not and passes the defect
  as it replicates leading to a collection of
  defective tissues or cancer. ALS and Huntingtons
  disease can occur from programmed cell death
  occuring more frequently than it should. Healthy
  cells are given the signal for apoptosis and
  degrade themselves. This can destroy healthy
  neurological pathways leading to a loss of
  functionality in an individual.

15

• LO 4.25 The student is able to use evidence to
  justify a claim that a variety of phenotypic
  responses to a single environmental factor can
  result from different genotypes within the
  population.
• SP 6.1 The student can justify claims with
  evidence.
• Explanation A populations ability to respond to
  one environmental factor differently is occurring
  because of genetic variation within the
  population. Populations that are not able to have
  genetic variations are in danger of becoming
  extinct. Some examples of populations that didnt
  have genetic diversity are the California Condor,
  the Black-footed Ferret, and Prairie Chickens. A
  very successful population that has genetic
  variation is the population of different finches
  on the Galapagos Islands that Darwin studied. The
  different birds adapted by growing different
  beaks for the different food sources so they
  wouldnt compete for food. Also in some disease
  outbreaks within a population, individuals are
  affected differently because of their different
  genetic makeup. Some have major symptoms or even
  death, while others in the same population may
  experience nothing. All variations within a
  population can be modeled by the Hardy-Weinberg
  equation p22pqq21. The P2 represents all
  the individuals within a population that have
  homozygous dominant alleles for the trait. The
  2pq represents all the individuals within a
  population that have heterozygous alleles for the
  trait. The Q2 represents all the individuals
  within a population that have the homozygous
  recessive alleles for the trait. This equation
  can also be represented in a punnett square which
  looks like the figure
• to the right. The hereditary tree to the right
  shows how traits are passed down from generation.
• Multiple Choice Question Which of the following
  are results of genetic
• variation based on different environmental
  factors?
• I. Natural Selection
• II. The creation of antibiotic resistant
  pathogens
• III. Two offspring of homozygous dominant parents
  for all alleles mating
• to make their own babies
• IV. An Alaskan fox being able to change its coat
  color during seasonal change
• A) I 2 only
• B) III only
• C) All of the above
• D) I, II, IV
• Free Response Question The Nazca Booby is a type
  of bird that is indigenous
• to the western parts of South America but more
  recently they have started to inhabit one of the
  islands of the Galapagos.
• Because the island the Boobies inhabit have no
  natural predators they have become more
  accustomed to people being
• around them. Name a few different phenotypic
  responses that the Booby could display while it
  is laying on its eggs and a

16
Answers

• Multiple Choice
• The answer to the multiple choice question is D).
  This is because natural selection, the creation
  of antibiotic resistant pathogens and an Arctic
  Fox being able to change its coat color during
  the different seasons are all examples of genetic
  variation in response to different environmental
  factor. Natural selection will favor the animal
  that has the best genetics for its environment,
  like finches in the Galapagos changing their beak
  style so they wont compete for food. With
  antibiotic resistant pathogens the pathogen that
  isnt effected by the drug will survive and
  reproduce to live on. Lastly the Arctic Fox is
  able to change its coat color because during the
  winter its environment is snowy and white so it
  needs a white coat for camouflage to hunt and in
  the warmer months its environment is brown so it
  changes its coat color to brown to camouflage
  itself during warmer months.

• Free Response
• Since the Booby has been isolated for so long
  from natural predators the humans could have
  multiple effects on them. I believe the most
  common response to someone stressing out the bird
  on their nesting site would be to become
  territorial and try to attack the person. This is
  displayed in multiple animal like the lioness for
  instance when she is protecting her territory.
  The bird may also have no idea what to do and
  just sit there because it has never encountered
  something like this before. You can see this when
  dear stop in the middle of the road in oncoming
  traffic because they are just so frightened they
  have no idea what to do. A third response could
  be that the Booby would just turn around and
  pretend that the person isnt there. A perfect
  quote can display this, out of sight, out of
  mind. These are three different phenotypic
  responses that a population of Booby could have
  to the same environmental factor.

17
Citations

• http//www.google.com/imgres?imgurlimgrefurlhtt
  p3A2F2Fbiology.westfield.ma.edu2FBiol2032Fpop
  ulation-genetics-outlineh0w0tbnidm8pIe-HRxZf
  29Mzoom1tbnh109tbnw143docidBqfPGbH2OZZA3M
  tbmischeidq1hU8DFFLSksQS22IHgAgved0CAgQsCUoAg
  
• https//www.google.com/search?qhardyweinbergequ
  ationsafeofftbmischtbousourceunivsaXei
  RKxhU7e7JfTQsQT57YCgDgved0CEoQsAQbiw1366bih6
  85qgeneticvariationwithinapopulationsafeof
  ftbmischfacrc_imgdii_imgrc6_gppozc91-43M2
  53A3Bkhqikx1KRVBpkM3Bhttp253A252F252Fevolutio
  n.berkeley.edu252Fevolibrary252Fimages252Fnews
  252Fpantheralleles.gif3Bhttp253A252F252Fevolut
  ion.berkeley.edu252Fevolibrary252Fnews252F10120
  1_panthers3B4873B274

18
LO 2.5 The student is able to construct
explanations of the mechanisms and structural
features of cells that allow organisms to
capture, store or use free energy. SP 6.2 The
student can construct explanations of phenomena
based on evidence produced through scientific
practices. Explanation Free energy measures the
portion of a systems energy that can perform
work when temperature and pressures are uniform
throughout the system. Autotrophs capture free
energy from the environment. Photosynthetic
organisms capture free energy from sunlight.
During photosynthesis chlorophylls absorb free
energy from light which boast electrons to a
higher energy level in photosystems I and II.
Light energy is harnessed in photosystem here
photons of light energy strike a chlorophyll
molecule and excite electrons to a higher energy
level. The thylakoid membrane is populated by
photosystem I and photosystem II. When electrons
are transferred between molecules in a sequence
of reaction as they pass through the ETC a
gradient of hydrogen protons across the thylakoid
membrane is established. The ETC uses
chemiosmosis to power ATP synthesize to make ATP
the special chlorophyll hits it again sending an
electron to a higher energy level where it is
captured by a different primary electron
receptor. The electrons are passed along a
shorted ETC and are transferred to NADP to
create NADPH which is used in the Calvin Cycle.
The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplast and releases NADP and ADP which is
used in light reactions. Heterotrophs capture
free energy present in carbon compounds produced
by other organisms. Cellular Respiration is a set
of process that makes energy for cells. The first
step is glycolysis which means the splitting of
sugar and it rearranges the bonds in glucose
molecules which takes ADP and makes ATP and then
the end product is pyruvate. Pyruvate is then
transported across the mitochondria membrane by
active transport for the Krebs cycle. In the
Krebs cycle carbon dioxide is released from
organic intermediates and ATP is synthesized from
ADP and phosphate thorough substrate
phosphorylation and electrons are captured by
coenzymes. In the cycle it spins twice for each
glucose molecule and one for each pyruvate
molecule. NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the
electron transport chain. The ECT is in the
mitochondria during cellular respiration and
during photosynthesis it occurs in the
chloroplasts. In cellular respiration electrons
are passed to electrons acceptors as they move
down the chain the final electrons acceptor is
oxygen and in photosynthesis the final acceptor
is NADP.As the ETC accepts and then donate
electrons they pump hydrogen ions form the
mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space
or in plants into the thylakoid membrane .
Chemical energy is transformed into a proton
motive force a gradient of H across the
membrane. The hydrogen ions flow back down their
gradient through a channel in an ATP synthase.
The ATP synthase harnesses the proton motive
force to phosphorylate ADP forming ATP. The use
of a H gradient to transfer energy from redox
reactions to cellular chemiosmosis. Together
electron transport and chemiosmosis compose
oxidative phosphorylation. All of these processes
make free energy for organisms to use and expend
in the environment.
19

• MC Question Tom has never had any energy to do
  the things he needs to do throughout the day. He
  is taken to the doctor for some test and they
  discover that his mitochondria produces more
  lactate than the average person. What is the best
  explanation for his problem?
• He does not have the transport protein that
  transports pyruvate across his mitochondria
• His mitochondria is unable to perform cellular
  respiration
• His body can not make pyruvate in glycolysis
• He can not make ATP in his mitochondria
• FRQ A same plant species was observed in tow
  different lakes. The amount of oxygen dissolved
  was recorded through out the day. Using the graph
  and the data chart below and on the next slide
  compare the oxygen consumed in each lake and
  predict why there was a difference between the
  plants in each lake.

20
Data Time Lake 1 O2
consumption Lake 2
O2 consumption 6AM (0)
.5 mg
.9 mg 8AM (1)
3.0 mg

2.2 mg 10PM (2) 4.6
mg
3.4 mg 12PM (3)
5.7 mg
4.8
mg 2PM (4) 7.2 mg

6.4 mg 4PM (5)
8.0 mg
7.0 mg 6PM
(6) 7.1 mg

6.2 mg 8PM (7)
6.2 mg
5.3 mg 10PM (8)
4.5 mg

3.1 mg 12AM (9) 2.5
mg
2 mg
21
Answers M.C A. He does not have the transport
protein that transports pyruvate across his
mitochondria A is the correct answer because
since he produces so much lactate it is converted
back to pyruvate but he does not have the
transport protein that moves the pyruvate into
the mitochondria to continue through cellular
respiration in the citric acid cycle. Therefore
his body does not produce ATP that gives him
energy which explains why he is tired. Free
Response Overall lake number 1 consumed more
oxygen that lake 2. As the time went on in the
day the oxygen consumption increased then reached
its highest point in the afternoon. Then as the
time passed the oxygen consumption decreased. The
reason why both increased was because the sun was
rising and it was getting hotter in the day as
the sun set the oxygen consumption decreased. A
reason why the plants in lake 1 has a higher
oxygen consumption could be because it is exposed
to more sunlight than lake 2. Which allows the
plants in lake 1 to go thorough more
photosynthesis which would explain why it has a
higher oxygen consumption.
http//legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/bio/note
s/BIO20Notes20E20Photosynthesis.htm
22
LO 3.37 The student is able to justify claims
based on scientific evidence that changes in
signal transduction pathways can alter cellular
response. SP 6.1 The student can justify claims
with evidence.
Explanation A signal transduction pathway takes
place during cell communication. Cells
communicate by using neurotransmitters for short
distances and hormones for long distances. The
three stages of cell signaling include reception,
transduction, and response. Reception is when a
signal molecule (ligand) binds to the receptor
protein on the outside of a target cell. Next,
transduction (a series of events involving
secondary messengers) occurs as the binding of
the ligand causes a change in the receptor
protein, which then brings about a specific
cellular response. If there is a change in the
signal transduction pathway, this can ultimately
alter the cellular response, as the pathway in
which the message is being carried along and
amplified, controls whether or not the response
occurs. Transduction occurs as a series of
events, but it can also occur as a series of
unfortunate events. Examples based on scientific
evidence where pathways may be interrupted or
altered include drugs, poisons, or diseases in
the body. Poisons, such as those found in anthrax
can cause a disruption in signal transduction
pathways. Normally, a ligand would bind to a
G-protein which then releases an alpha subunit
that creates cAMP, which is a secondary messenger
that amplifies the message and targets different
parts within the cell. But when the poison that
is found in anthrax is present, it targets the
enzyme adenylate cyclase thus changing its
shape, making it not able to convert ATP to cAMP.
As a result, the signal transduction pathway is
disrupted and the cellular response is altered.
Another example is diabetes. Diabetes is a
disease in which the body has shortage of
insulin, a decreased ability to use insulin, or
both. Insulin is a hormone that allows glucose to
enter cells and be converted to energy. In each
of our bodies there is an insulin receptor that
sits on the surface of specific target cells.
Once insulin binds to that receptor, a series of
events occurs within the cell including an effect
on the glucose transporter (GLUT) which allows
the cell to take in glucose to make use of it by
storing it as glycogen. With Type 1 Diabetes, a
person is not producing insulin, therefore it
doesnt have the capabilities of binding with the
receptor. With Type 2 Diabetes, the insulin
receptor is ignoring the message that is trying
to come through ultimately disrupting the signal
transduction pathway by inactivating GLUT and as
a result the person doesnt take in glucose.

• MC Question
• If the insulin receptor located on a target cell
  was to become inhibited, what would most likely
  be the result of this disruption?
• (Look at diagram to the right)
• Insulin would still bind to the receptor protein
  but no message would be relayed.
• Insulin would diffuse through the cell membrane
  and target an intracellular receptor that was
  active.
• The amount of glucose would increase.
• The cells would eventually die due to the fact
  that there was no cellular activity (cell
  communication) taking place because the receptors
  were inhibited.

• Free response A group of scientists are
  designing an experiment in which they are trying
  to figure out how to inhibit a disruption in the
  signal transduction pathway via cell
  communication.
• Describe the process that occurs during normal
  cell communication
• Discuss one thing that could help the inhibition
  of these pathways
• Provide evidence of a real life disease that
  results in a disruption to these pathways

23

• MC Question
• If the insulin receptor located on a target cell
  was to become inhibited, what would most likely
  be the result of this disruption?
• Insulin would still bind to the receptor protein
  and a message would be relayed.
• Insulin would diffuse through the cell membrane
  and target an intracellular receptor that was
  active.
• The amount of glucose would increase.
• The cells would eventually die due to the fact
  that there was no cellular activity (cell
  communication) taking place because the receptors
  were inhibited.

A is not correct because if insulin were to bind
to a receptor that is inhibited then the message
would not be relayed. B is not correct because
insulin cant diffuse through a cell because it
is a protein (hormone) and it would be too big to
pass through. D is not correct because cells
dont die because there isnt any cellular
activity, they die from programmed cell death or
exposure to harmful environments. C is the answer
because since the receptors are inhibited,
insulin cant bind which then cant open the
glucose transporter (GLUT) so the amount of
glucose levels would increase since glucose cant
be taken into the cell for storage as glycogen.

• Free response A group of scientists are
  designing an experiment in which they are trying
  to figure out how to inhibit a disruption in the
  signal transduction pathway via cell
  communication.
• Describe the process that occurs during normal
  cell communication
• Discuss one thing that could help the inhibition
  of these pathways
• Provide evidence of a real life disease that
  results in disruption to these pathways

Cell communication can occur through short or
long distances. Cell communication starts out
with reception when a ligand binds to a receptor,
then transduction when the message is being
amplified through a series of steps with the use
of secondary messengers, and it finally results
in a cellular response. One way that the
scientists could inhibit this disruption is to
inhibit the receptor in which the ligand binds
to. If that is inhibited then no message can be
relayed causing no disruption in the signal
transduction pathway, also creating no cellular
response. A real life disease in which this
occurs is diabetes. With Type 1 Diabetes, a
person is not producing insulin, therefore it
doesnt have the capabilities of binding with the
receptor. With Type 2 Diabetes, the insulin
receptor is ignoring the message that is trying
to come through ultimately disrupting the signal
transduction pathway by inactivating GLUT and as
a result the person doesnt take in glucose.
24

• LO 1.11 The student is able to design a plan to
  answer scientific questions regarding how
  organisms have changed over time using
  information from morphology, biochemistry, and
  geology. (See SP 4.2)
• SP 4.2 The student can design a plan for
  collecting data to answer a particular scientific
  question.
• Explanation All organisms can be linked to other
  organisms in some way by common ancestry , and
  over a long period of time have branched off into
  their own species. Determining how organisms have
  evolved can be done by looking at physical
  features of the current organism and comparing
  them to those in fossils of the ancestor or to
  other organisms with similar structures.
  Depending on which rock layer a fossil is found
  in gives a rough estimate of when that organism
  lived, which helps scientists more easily place
  that species on a phylogenetic tree for
  comparisons and sequencing of ancestry. Genetic
  analysis shows similarities between organisms in
  terms of how many base pairs or amino acids are
  different. As time goes on, DNA/RNA sequences
  will change, leading to evolution of a species or
  the creation of a whole new species. To determine
  how organisms have changed over time, compare
  fossils or genetic sequences to see changes in
  physical structures or compare DNA sequences to
  see how mutations have led to evolution.

25

• MC Question Three fossils of now-extinct
  organisms are found one in rock layer B, one in
  C, and one in D. Which one will have physical
  structures that most resemble those of an
  organism that thrives today?
• A) The one in rock layer B
• B) The one in rock layer C
• C)The one in rock layer D
• D) Cannot be determined
• LL/FRQ Style Question
• Assume that a particular species of frog and a
  particular species of lizard have a common
  ancestor, which is now extinct. Where the frogs
  and lizards live now was covered by water many
  hundreds of thousands of years ago, but now is
  mostly dried up.
• A) Describe the best way to learn the physical
  structures of the common ancestor.
• B) Assume the common ancestor is a fish with two
  pectoral and two abdominal fins. When the water
  dried up, what structural changes would you
  expect to see happening over a gradual period of
  time?
• Biochemistry involves the study of DNA sequences
  and genes. Morphology involves the study of the
  form and structure of organisms and their
  specific structural features.
• C) Using evidence from either biochemistry or
  morphology, describe one way that you would find
  evidence to show how species change over time and
  become different than their ancestor. Describe
  how that evidence proves that a species has
  changed from its common ancestor.

26

• MC Question Three fossils of now-extinct
  organisms are found one in rock layer B, one in
  C, and one in D. Which one will have physical
  structures that most resemble those of an
  organism that thrives today?
• A) The one in rock layer B
• B) The one in rock layer C
• C)The one in rock layer D
• D) Cannot be determined
• A is correct because the fossil in layer B will
  be the youngest of the three, because the further
  down in the ground a fossil is, the older it is.
  Because the fossil in layer B is the youngest, it
  will be most closely related to an animal that
  lives today, meaning that their structures will
  be the most similar.
• LL/FRQ Style Question
• A) The best way to learn the physical structures
  of the common ancestor are to look at fossils of
  it. Fossils provide a depiction of what exactly
  the organism looked like, and therefore, we will
  learn the structures the organism had based on
  what structures we see in the fossil.
• B) We would expect to see the fins gradually take
  the shape of legs. We know that lizards and frogs
  have legs, and they need them to travel on land.
  As the water dried up, there was no need to have
  fins anymore, and organisms with structures
  allowing them to be more mobile on land would be
  favored. Also, the four fins are already in an
  ideal place to become legs.

27

• C) Biochemistry
• To find evidence of how the species has changed
  over time, sequence the DNA of the ancestor and
  the present day species that is a descendant of
  the ancestor. By finding differences in the
  sequences of their DNA, it can be determined what
  genes are different than the ancestor. By having
  differences in the sequencing of DNA, we can see
  how exactly on a molecular level the species has
  changed over time.
• OR
• Morphology
• To find evidence of how the species has changed
  over time, examine the structures of the current
  day animal and the ancestor by using fossils, and
  make observations of the similarities and
  differences. By finding different physical
  features, we know that the species has changed
  over time from its ancestor. Similarities in form
  will show ancestry, but there still should be
  some differences in structure as some structures
  are favored over others as conditions change.

This picture shows similar structure in four
different organisms. We know by the similar
structure that there is common ancestry involved,
however, the structures are slightly different.
The common ancestor must have encountered some
environmental pressure that made it need
different functions for its limbs, leading to a
physical change in structure.
28
LO 4.9 The student is able to predict the effects
of a change in a component(s) of a biological
system on the functionality of an organism(s).SP
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

• Explanation A Biological system is one uses
  free energy to maintain equilibrium, reproduce,
  and grow. They further use different means to
  obtain and utilize free energy and other
  resources. The goal outlined by Learning
  Objective 4.9 is to allow for the student to
  better understand the effects that are associated
  with changes to components of living systems, and
  how any changes would effect the ways in which
  the organism functions and adapts accordingly.
  Using SP 6.4, a student should be able to draw
  parallels between different scientific evidence
  to assess potential results that would occur with
  these changes.
• MC Question
• What effects upon an organism would occur if it
  has contracted diabetes and the pancreas is no
  longer able to produce any or sufficient insulin?
• The blood sugar levels of the organism would
  decrease.
• The blood cells would become turgid due to the
  lack of homeostasis.
• The blood sugar levels of the organism would
  increase.
• There would be increased blockage in the
  organisms arteries.
• Learning Log/FRQ
• Describe how the Human Immunodeficiency Virus
  attacks the components of an organism and affects
  the functionality of the immune system? Identify
  what type of virus the HIV virus is and describe
  how it reproduces itself in the host biological
  system. Assess why a multitude of AIDS patients
  ultimately die of common illnesses.

29
LO 4.9/ SP 6.4 (Answers)

• Multiple Choice Answer
• (C) is the correct answer because the lack of
  insulin would make it hard for the body to break
  down sugars, leaving higher glucose concentration
  in the blood, which would make (A) incorrect. (B)
  is incorrect because the insulin or lack of
  insulin has no effect on the concentration of the
  blood cells, which affect turgidity, and (D) is
  incorrect because the diabetes has no correlation
  to increase of plaque in arteries
• Learning Log/FRQ Answer
• The HIV virus attacks important immune system
  cells known as helper-T cells that lyses infected
  cells, so without these helper-T cells, the
  immune system would not work properly and leave
  the individual to be vulnerable to diseases. .
  The HIV Virus is a type of retrovirus that
  reproduces by binding to a blood cell and
  injecting the nucleic acid and reverse
  transcriptase into the cell that will translate
  the RNA into DNA and transport it to the nucleus
  of the cell where it will be integrated with the
  DNA of the host cell. Thus the cell creates more
  HIV cells and once it reaches full capacity the
  blood cell lyses and releases the reproduced HIV
  cells that can repeat the process on other blood
  cells. Once this stage has occurred, the
  organism has contracted AIDS, and their immune
  system is heavily compromised. Thus, they are
  left vulnerable to diseases, and could
  potentially die of common illnesses due to the
  helper T-cells being unable to properly carry out
  their jobs.

30

• LO 2.24 The student is able to analyze data to
  identify possible patterns and relationships
  between a biotic or abiotic factor and a
  biological system (cells, organisms, populations,
  communities or ecosystems).
• SP 5.1 The student can analyze data to identify
  patterns or relationships.
• Explanation In regards to cell activity, for
  example, a plant would lose some of its water
  through evapotranspiration if its exposed to too
  much sunlight. (If the data were recorded it
  would show how as light exposure increased so
  would the rate of evapotranspiration.) In
  contrast, if a short night plant isnt exposed to
  sufficient sunlight it wont flower since the
  night wasnt shorter than a critical
  duration.(Data would show low flowering rates in
  relation to low amounts of light exposure.) Also,
  a plant cell will produce abscisic acid when its
  cold (low temperatures) which will inhibit the
  growth of this organism. (Low temperatures would
  then correlate with decreased growth of
  individuals.) An organisms activities are also
  affected by its interactions with biotic and
  abiotic factors. Such an example would be that
  when temperatures get severely low (long, cold
  winters) some animals hibernate woodchucks
  heartbeats go from 80 to 4 or 5 beats per minute,
  also dropping body temperatures 60 degrees (oF)
  below normal. (If data were to be recorded it
  would show the relationship between cold weather
  and the hibernation patterns of animals.) The
  stability of populations, communities, and
  ecosystems is also affected by interactions with
  factors such as water availability, food chains,
  and population density. Such as how most plant
  populations won't thrive during droughts
  (Decreased water becoming correlated with the
  decrease of those plant populations.), or how
  more competition may lower the survival rate of a
  certain species (Increased population of one
  species decreasing that of another.).
• M.C. Question Based on the data provided which
  can be inferred?

I. The abiotic factor has no association/correlati
on with the size of the population. II. Crop
production increases as annual precipitation
increases.III. The biological system presented
in this question affects the abiotic factor
shown. A) Only IIIB) II and IIIC) I, II, and
IIID) Only IIE) I and II
Slide 1 of 4
31

• Learning Log/FRQ-style Question Biological
  systems such as populations are affected by both
  biotic and abiotic factors.

a. Identify two abiotic factors that could cause
the fluctuations seen in the graph provided. i.
Elaborate on one of the abiotic factors you
identified. b. Identify two biotic factors that
could cause the fluctuations seen in the graph
provided. i. Elaborate on one of the biotic
factors you identified.
Slide 2 of 4
32

• ANSWER KEY-LO 2.24
• Based on the data provided which can be inferred?
• I. The abiotic factor has no association/correlati
  on with the size of the population.
• II. Crop production increases as annual
  precipitation increases.III. The biological
  system presented in this question affects the
  abiotic factor shown.
• A) Only IIIB) II and IIIC) I, II, and IIID)
  Only IIE) I and II
• -------------------------------------------------
  --------------------------------------------------
  --------------------------------------------------
  ---------------
• A) III is wrong since the biological system
  (population-size) is the response variable not
  the explanatory one.B) Cant be right since it
  includes III (see A).C)Cant be right since it
  includes III and I (see A for III, and E for
  I).D) II is right since as X (annual
  precipitation) increases then Y (crop production)
  increases.E) Cant be right since it includes I
  I is wrong since there is an association evident
  between the explanatory variable (annual
  precipitation-abiotic factor) and the response
  variable (population size) (positive slope seen).

Slide 3 of 4
33

• Biological systems such as populations are
  affected by both biotic and abiotic factors.
• a. Identify two abiotic factors that could cause
  the fluctuations seen in the graph provided.
• i. Elaborate on one of the abiotic factors you
  identified.
• b. Identify two biotic factors that could cause
  the fluctuations seen in the graph provided.
• i. Elaborate on one of the biotic factors you
  identified.
• a. One abiotic factor that could cause these
  fluctuations is rain, which affects water
  availability. Such as how some years there are
  droughts and during others theres plenty of
  water available and isnt a concern to the
  populations found within a given area. Another
  abiotic factor could be wind. Such as how wind
  helps/aids in the dispersion of dandelion seeds.
  If winds arent strong enough during a
  pollination season it would decrease the
  population of the next generation.
• i. During a period of drought the population
  size of a grass would decrease due to lack of
  water. After the period of drought the population
  would once again flourish and be abundant in its
  location of growth. Due to all the land that was
  available too much grass flourished depleting the
  amount of nutrients in the soil causing the
  population to once again decrease. Then once
  theres a good amount of rain in a certain period
  that would help restore some of the nutrients in
  the land. Changes would continue to happen in
  this manner going from plenty of individuals to
  the population number dropping again.
• b. One biotic factor that could cause the
  fluctuations seen would be the amount of plants
  available. Such as not enough grass being able to
  maintain the current population of rabbits.
  Another biotic factor would be an animal. Such as
  there being more of a predatory population than
  the prey population, affecting one another.
• i. During a year when the population of
  rabbits(the prey) increases the population of
  wolves would then increase as well (the
  predator). The wolf population would then exceed
  its carrying capacity by overhunting the rabbit
  population of rabbits, decreasing one of their
  resources. Then the wolf population would
  decrease due to starvation/competition for
  resources, allowing for the population of rabbits
  to once again be restored. This increase and
  decrease (the fluctuations observed on the graph)
  in wolf population would continue in this manner.

Slide 4 of 4
34
Learning Object 2.36 The student is able to
justify scientific claims with evidence to show
how timing and coordination of physiological
events involve regulation. Science Practice 6.1
The student can justify claims with evidence.
Explanation The timing and coordination of
physiological events like hibernation,
estivation, circadian rhythms, and such are in
response to internal and external cues both
environmental and systemic. Physiological events
occur in tandem with environmental changes, like
hibernation during the winter or a nocturnal
species sleeping during the daylight. In
hibernation, species go into torpor, or a low
activity state with decreased metabolism, which
allows them to conserve energy in times where
temperatures are extreme or food is not easily
available. Squirrels, for example, provide
evidence of this situation in the winter the
Beldings ground squirrel drops body temperature
from 37 C to close to freezing and regulates its
metabolism down to about 5-8 kcal per day from
around 85 kcal per day. Plants respond mainly to
the stimuli of phototropism and photoperiodism or
the response to light or length of light, which
generally corresponds to certain times during
each day.

• Free Response Question A study was done on a
  representative group of ground squirrels whose
  body temperature and metabolic rates were
  measured for one month. The results are
  summarized in the graph to the right. The dashed
  line represents the mean metabolic rate for the
  ground squirrels during the summer time when they
  do not hibernate. Considering the diagram to the
  right, answer the following questions
• Describe the graph and explain what the changes
  in body temperature and metabolic rate indicate
  in terms of hibernation.
• Explain the evolutionary advantage of hibernation
  for ground squirrels. Justify your conclusions
  using evidence from the graph.
• Identify and describe the method of regulation of
  metabolic rate during hibernation and what
  triggers it.

• Multiple Choice Which of the following scenarios
  is not an example of regulation of physiological
  events by timing or coordination?
• Plants like clover and carnations are long-day
  plants while hemp and cotton are short-day plants
  based on the length of the night
• Bees dance in specific patterns to alert fellow
  bees where food can be found
• A