Survey of Modern Psychology

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Survey of Modern Psychology

• Personality

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Personality

• Personality generally refers to the distinctive
  patterns (including thoughts as well as
  affects, that is, feelings and emotions and
  actions) that characterize each individual
  enduringly.
• (Mischel, 1999)

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Personality Psychology

• Personality psychology examines a persons traits
  that are considered to be consistent across
  situations.
• Social Psychology focuses on how the situation
  causes individuals to behave a certain way
• Behavior is seen as primarily a function of the
  situation rather than individual characteristics
• Personality Psychology emphasizes the importance
  of individual differences

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Approaches to Personality

• There are five main approaches to the study and
  interpretation of personality
• Psychodynamic
• Trait and Biological
• Phenomenological
• (Emphasizes the individual's experience and how
  he or she perceives it)
• Behavioral
• Social Cognitive-Affective
• Tables from Mischel, 1999

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Causes of Behavior
Psychodynamic Underlying stable motives and their unconscious transformation
Trait and Biological Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most) dispositions
Phenomenological Self-concepts, feelings and conflicts, attributions, free choices (not mechanistically determined)
Behavioral Prior learning and cues in a situation (including the behavior of others)
Social Cognitive-Affective Reciprocal interaction between person and situation, mediated by the person variables interacting within the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS
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Behavioral Manifestations of Personality
Psychodynamic Symptoms, mistakes, dreams, fantasies
Trait and Biological Direct signs of traits
Phenomenological Private experiences, perceptions, and interpretations
Behavioral Stable behavior equated with personality
Social Cognitive-Affective Stable patterns of person-situation interactions distinctive configurations of if then relationships (i.e., she does X when Y but she does A when B)
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Preferred Data Sources
Psychodynamic Interpretations by expert judges (clinicians)
Trait and Biological Test responses (on questionnaires) trait ratings, behavior genetics research, twin studies
Phenomenological Self-disclosure and personal constructs (about self and others) self-reports
Behavioral Direct observations of behavior in the target situation
Social Cognitive-Affective Measures of person variables in interaction with one another and relevant situations
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Research Focus
Psychodynamic Personality dynamics and psychopathology unconscious processes defense mechanisms the fragmented self
Trait and Biological Measurement (test construction), description of individual differences and their patterning taxonomy of traits heritability of personality
Phenomenological Self-concepts self-awareness and expression human potential and self-actualization emotion attribution
Behavioral Behavior change analysis of conditions controlling behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Refining theories about underlying processes and discovering practical implications (for health, for risk prevention in vulnerable individuals)
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Approach to Personality Change
Psychodynamic By insight into motives and conflicts underlying behavior
Trait and Biological Not much concerned with change search for consistent, stable characteristics biochemical treatments for disorders
Phenomenological By increased awareness, personal honesty, internal consistency, and self-acceptance by modifying constructs by alternative construals
Behavioral By changing conditions by experiences that modify behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective By changing underlying person variables (e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves modifying efficacy and outcome expectations and processing dynamics)
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Role of Situation
Psychodynamic Deliberately minimized or ambiguous
Trait and Biological Acknowledged but of secondary interest until recently
Phenomenological As the context for experience and choice focus on the situation-as-perceived
Behavioral Extremely important regulates much behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Provides psychological cues and information that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality System dynamics and dispositions
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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• Personality is both stable and capable of change

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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• Dispositions and situations are both important

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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• Behavior depends on the social environment
  genetic and biological factors are also
  foundations of social behavior

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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• People are both consistent and inconsistent

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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• Humans are cognitive and emotional beings

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Contradictions in Personality Theory

• Behavior can be both rational and irrational

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Personality Tests

• Discussion What do you know about personality
  tests?

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Personality Tests

• Projective Tests
• Present the individual with material thats open
  to interpretation. The tests are based on the
  assumption that the responses reveal information
  about the respondents personality

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Personality Tests

• Objective/standardized/structured tests
• Materials are standardized and give a structured
  set of potential responses (ex. true/false,
  always/sometimes/never, dont know, etc.)
• Scoring is based on a given set of specific
  criteria and is not open to broad interpretation

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Projective Tests - Rorschach

• Consists of 10 cards with vertically symmetrical
  inkblots
• The respondent looks at the inkblots one at a
  time and is asked to say everything the inkblot
  could resemble or look like
• The examiner usually asks for details about the
  interpretation of the inkblot

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Projective Tests - Rorschach

• Responses are scored based on
• Location (the part of the card that the
  respondent refers to)
• Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape,
  suggestion of movement)
• Originality
• Content
• These responses are generally compared to those
  of respondents of a similar age group

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Projective Tests - Rorschach

• The examiner interprets the responses as related
  to personality, creative capacity, contact with
  reality, and anxiety

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Rorschach Test

• There is debate as to whether the results have
  any true meaning
• Mixed results on inter-rater reliability
• A more intelligent or creative person may give a
  higher number of interpretations, meaning that
  theres a higher chance some will be considered
  pathological
• Cross culturally, different people may focus on
  different aspects of the same inkblot

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Rorschach Test

• Often, more can be inferred from how the
  respondent verbalizes their response rather than
  the answer itself
• For example, a more vivid description of the same
  image could indicate a higher IQ

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• Factors other than pathology may influence how we
  interpret inkblots

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• The test contains a series of picture cards
  presented one at a time
• It is described as a story telling test, and the
  respondent is asked to make up a story for each
  picture telling
• What led up to the event shown in the picture
• What is happening in the picture at the moment
• What the characters are feeling and thinking
• What is the outcome?

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TAT

• The task is timed from before the respondent
  begins the story to the end of the story
• It studies how people interpret an ambiguous
  stimuli
• The themes are assumed to reflect the
  respondents underlying conflicts and problems
• Results are generally interpreted based on the
  clinicians judgments rather than a formal
  scoring method

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TAT

• Images include adults, children, men, women, and
  ambiguous figures
• Originally, 10 cards were selected out of the
  possible 31 and were matched to the respondent
  based on age and gender

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Problems with the TAT

• The story a person tells does not necessarily
  reflect a permanent inner state
• For example, a person who has recently lost a
  loved one might tell a sad story with a
  bereavement theme because it has recently been on
  their mind, not because they are a generally
  depressed person

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Problems with the TAT

• Original images were made in the 1930s and had
  white people, which may influence the
  interpretations for non-white test takers
• Some of the images are now considered outdated,
  which may bias results
• The interpretation of the story is generally
  left up to the examiner

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Problems with Projective Tests

• They are open to the interpretation of the
  examiner
• Does the same response always mean the same
  thing?
• Its usually easy to fake good or fake bad

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The Big Five

• In research, when people are asked to describe
  themselves they tend to cluster their
  descriptions around these five categories (on
  different points of a spectrum)

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The Big Five

1. Neuroticism
2. Extraversion
3. Openness to Experience
4. Agreeableness
5. Conscientiousness

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Neuroticism

• Negative emotions, e.g., anxiety, depression
• In this spectrum
• Calm vs. worrying
• Unemotional vs. emotional
• Secure vs. insecure
• Not envious vs. jealous

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Extraversion

• Positive emotionality
• In this spectrum
• Quiet vs. talkative
• Aloof vs. friendly
• Inhibited vs. spontaneous
• Timid vs. bold

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Openness to Experience

• Vs. closed-mindedness
• In this spectrum
• Conventional vs. original
• Unadventurous vs. daring
• Conforming vs. independent
• Unartistic vs. artistic

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Agreeableness

• Vs. antagonism
• In this spectrum
• Irritable vs. good natured
• Uncooperative vs. helpful
• Suspicious vs. trusting
• Critical vs. lenient

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Conscientiousness

• Vs. undirectedness
• In this spectrum
• Careless vs. careful
• Helpless vs. self-reliant
• Lax vs. scrupulous
• Ignorant vs. knowledgeable

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The Big Five

• This list was constructed using Factor Analysis
• Patterns of responses that tend to go together
• Particular adjectives are strongly correlated
  with other adjectives those characteristics make
  up that particular trait

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The Big Five

• Inter rater reliability tends to be good
• Test-retest reliability is high

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)

• The MMPI is one of the most extensive, popular,
  and widely studied personality questionnaires

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MMPI

• Consists of 550 statements
• Gives the answer options of
• True
• False
• Cannot say (undecided)

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MMPI

• The MMPI was originally used to classify
  psychiatric patients on multiple dimensions
• Items ask about attitudes, emotional reactions,
  psychiatric symptoms, the respondent's past, and
  more

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MMPI Sample Items

• Sometimes I think I may kill myself
• My greatest troubles are inside myself
• I certainly have little self-assurance
• I wish I were not so awkward
• I am shy
• Questions are purposely vague and do not describe
  situations

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Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures
Item High Anxiety Response
I rarely get really tired False
I am not a worrier False
I cannot keep my mind focused on anything True
I almost never blush False
Often I cannot keep from crying True
Its hard for me to attend to a job True
Often I think I am no good True
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MMPI

• The MMPI is sorted into 10 scales with 3 control
  scales
• Results provide comparisons against norms
  (averages) and provide information based on
  people who give similar answers

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MMPI 10 Scales

1. Hypochondriasis
2. Depression
3. Hysteria
4. Psychopathic Deviate
5. Masculinity Femininity
6. Paranoia
7. Psychasthenia
8. Schizophrenia
9. Hypomania
10. Social Introversion

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MMPI Scales

• Hypochondriasis
• Neurotic concern over bodily functioning

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MMPI Scales

• Depression
• Poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and a
  general dissatisfaction with one's own life
  situation
• High scores may suggest clinical depression
• Lower scores reflect more general unhappiness
  with life

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MMPI Scales

• Hysteria
• Extreme reaction to stressful situations
• Often with a 'normal' façade but break down with
  stress
• People who tend to score higher are often
  brighter, better educated and from higher social
  classes
• Women tend to score higher

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MMPI Scales

• Psychopathic Deviate
• Measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of
  authority, dislike of the status quo, and
  amorality
• Adolescents tend to score higher
• This is part of a normal questioning of authority
  as one gets older
• Black people often score higher than white
  people

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MMPI Scales

• Masculinity Femininity
• Was originally intended to differentiate between
  heterosexual and homosexual men
• Has not been found to be effective
• Looks at how much a person endorses gender norms
• Extremely high scores for men or women suggest
  rejection of traditional gender roles
• Well educated and higher socio-economic status
  men tend to score higher

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MMPI Scales

• Paranoia
• Paranoid symptoms such as ideas of reference,
  feelings of persecution, grandiose self-concepts,
  suspiciousness, excessive sensitivity, and rigid
  opinions and attitudes.

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MMPI Scales

• Psychasthenia
• Originally characterized by excessive doubts,
  compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable fears
• It is now closest to Obsessive Compulsive
  Disorder (OCD)
• Also shows abnormal fears, self-criticism,
  difficulties in concentration, and guilt
  feelings

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MMPI Scales

• Schizophrenia
• Originally developed to identify schizophrenics 
• Variety of content areas, including bizarre
  thought processes and peculiar perceptions,
  social alienation, poor familial relationships,
  difficulties in concentration and impulse
  control, lack of deep interests, disturbing
  questions of self-worth and self-identity, and
  sexual difficulties
• Misinterpretations of reality, delusions, and
  hallucinations may be present
• Ambivalent or constricted emotional
  responsiveness is common
• Behavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarre
• Age, race, and socio-economic status tend to play
  a role in scores

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MMPI Scales

• Hypomania
• Tests for elevated mood, accelerated speech and
  motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas,
  and brief periods of depression

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MMPI Scales

• Social introversion
• Tests for a person's tendency to withdraw from
  social contacts and responsibilities
• Includes a measure of social participation and
  one of general neurotic maladjustment and
  self-depreciation

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MMPI 10 Scales

• The scale names are based on the questions
  correlations with other indices and do not
  necessarily indicate that symptom

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MMPI 3 Control Scales

• Lie scale
• Tendency to lie by faking good
• K Scale
• Defensiveness and trying to appear more socially
  desirable
• F Scale
• Measure of whether the respondent is answering
  items in a careless or confused fashion

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What This Means

• Self-reported answers on personality measures
  tend to be stable over time.
• However, answers on questionnaires do not
  necessarily predict our behavior.
• We may consistently rate ourselves the same, but
  behave differently.

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What This Means

• Results from the MMPI correlate well with other
  appropriate measures
• i.e., the anxiety measures correlate well with
  other anxiety inventories

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What This Means

• While it is more difficult to fake answers on the
  MMPI, the questions are still fairly transparent