War and the American State, 1914

1

• War and the American State, 19141920

2

• The Great War, 19141918
• War in Europe
• The Perils of Neutrality
• Over There

3

• How and why did World War I began?
• Evaluate and discuss President Wilsons decision
• to enter the war in 1917.
• Why World War I was considered a total war.
• How he war affected economic affairs and social
• relationships in America?
• How and why President Wilson attempted to
• shape the Treaty of Versailles?
• The failures of the Settlement of
• 19191920 to achieve a lasting peace in America
• and in Europe.

4
The Great War, 1914-1918

• War in Europe

5

• When war erupted, most Americans saw no reason to
  involve themselves in the struggle among Europe's
  imperialist powers the United States had a good
  relationship with both sides.
• Almost from the moment the Triple Entente was
  formed in 1907 to counter the Triple Alliance,
  European leaders began to prepare for an
  inevitable conflict.
• Austria's seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina in
  1908 enraged Russia and Serbia Serbian
  terrorists recruited Bosnians to agitate against
  Austrian rule.

6

• On June 28,1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian,
  assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the
  Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife in the town
  of Sarajevo.

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• After the assassination, the complex European
  alliance system drew all of the major powers into
  war within a few days.
• The two rival blocs faced off Great Britain,
  France, Japan, Russia, and Italy formed the
  Allied Powers, while Germany, Austria-Hungary,
  Turkey, and Bulgaria formed the Central Powers.
• Because the alliance system encompassed competing
  imperial powers, the conflict spread to parts of
  the world far beyond Europe, including the Middle
  East, Africa, and China. The worldwide scope of
  the conflict came to be known as "the Great War,"
  or later, World War I.

9

• World War I utilized new military technology,
  much of it from the United States, which made
  armies more deadly than before.
• Trench warfare produced unprecedented numbers of
  casualties between February and December of
  1916, the French suffered 550,000 casualties and
  the Germans 450,000.

10

• World War I could be considered the first
  "modern" war. Aside from the debut of the machine
  gun (seen here), it also marked the advent of air
  forces, submarines, tanks, and chemical warfare.
  Casualties skyrocketed accordingly, due mostly to
  the new, ruthlessly efficient weaponry, but also
  because armies continued to use 19th century
  tactics like trench warfare.

11
The Perils of Neutrality

• After the war began in Europe, President Woodrow
  Wilson made it clear that America would remain
  neutral he believed that if America kept aloof
  from the quarrel, he could arbitrate and
  influence a European settlement.
• The United States had divided loyalties
  concerning the war many Americans felt deep
  cultural ties to the Allies, while others,
  especially Irish and German immigrants, had
  strong pro-German sentiments.

12

• Progressive leaders opposed American
  participation in the European conflict, new
  pacifist groups mobilized popular opposition, the
  political left condemned the war as
  imperialistic, and some industrialists, such as
  Henry Ford, bankrolled antiwar activities.
• African American leaders saw the war as a
  conflict of the white race only.
• The British imposed a naval blockade that in
  effect prevented neutral nations, including the
  United States, from trading with Germany and its
  Allies.

13
American Neutrality (cont)

• Loans to Britain and France, but not to Germany
• Little protest to British violations of U.S.
  neutral rights
• German submarine warfare
• Designed to combat British dominance of the seas

14

• The resulting trade imbalance translated into
  closer U.S. economic ties with the Allies,
  despite America's official posture of neutrality.
• The German navy launched a devastating new
  weapon, the U-boat, and issued a warning to
  civilians that all ships flying the flags of
  Britain or its Allies were liable to be
  destroyed.
• On May 7,1915, the British luxury liner Lusitania
  was torpedoed by a German U-boat off the coast of
  Ireland 128 Americans were among the 1,198
  people killed.

15

• Led to sharp protest from Wilson
• Government refused to yield unless Britain
  allowed cargo to reach German ports
• Seemed to show that war with Germany was
  inevitable

16
In February 1915, Germany announced that it
intended to sink on sight enemy ships en route to
the British Isles. On May 7, 1915, a German
U-boat torpedoed the British passenger liner
Lusitania, killing 1,198 passengers, 128 of them
U.S. citizens. American newspapers featured
drawings of drowning women and children, and some
editorials demanded war. Propaganda posters like
this one were used to encourage military
enlistment once the United States entered World
War I in 1917.
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Arabic pledge

• Germany would warn non-military ships 30 minutes
  before they sank them to make sure the passengers
  and crew got out safely. They broke this pledge
  on March 24, 1916

19
The Sussex

• March 24th 1916 a German submarine in the English
  Channel attacked what it thought was a mine
  laying ship.
• French passenger steamer called 'The Sussex'
  and, although it didn't sink and limped into
  port, fifty people were killed. Several Americans
  were injured and, on April 19th, the US President
  (Woodrow Wilson) addressed Congress on the issue.
  He gave an ultimatum Germany should end attacks
  on passenger vessels, or face America 'breaking
  off' diplomatic relations.

20

• Germany promised to alter their naval and
  submarine policy of unrestricted submarine
  warfare and stop the indiscriminate sinking of
  non-military ships. Instead, Merchant Ships would
  be searched and sunk only if they contained
  contraband, and then only after safe passage had
  been provided for the crew and passengers.

21
American Neutrality (cont)

• House-Grey Memorandum, February 1916
• The so-called 'House-Grey Memorandum', noted in
  memo form by Grey, involved the U.S. 'inviting'
  German participation in a U.S. inspired peace
  convention the failure of Germany to attend
  would lead to U.S. military involvement.

22

• Won applause from many Americans
• American Union Against Militarism
• Campaign in 1916 based on his peace efforts
• Plans for international organization to maintain
  peace
• Laid out principles for a lasting peace in early
  1917
• Constituted new world order based on equality of
  all nations

23

• Despite repeated attempts to mediate an end to
  the European conflict through his aide, Colonel
  Edward House, Wilson worried that the United
  States might be drawn into the conflict in the
  fall of 1915, he endorsed a 1 billion buildup of
  the army and navy.

24

• Public opposition to entering the war made the
  election of 1916 a contest between two antiwar
  candidates-Wilson and Charles Evans Hughes
  Wilson won by only a slim margin that limited his
  options in mobilizing the nation for war.
• The events of early 1917 diminished Wilson's
  lingering hopes of staying out of the conflict.

25
German Escalation

• German push for victory on land and at sea, early
  1917
• To counter effect of Russian exit from war
• Zimmerman telegram

26

• The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare,
  in conjunction with the Zimmermann telegram,
  inflamed anti-German sentiment in America.

27

• coded telegram dispatched by the Foreign
  Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur
  Zimmermann, on January 16, 1917, to the German
  ambassador in the United States of America,
  Johann von Bernstorff
• January 19, Bernstorff, per Zimmermann's
  request, forwarded the Telegram to the German
  ambassador in Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt.

28

• Zimmermann sent the Telegram in anticipation of
  the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare
  by the German Empire on February 1, an act which
  German High Command feared would draw the neutral
  United States into war on the side of the Allies.
  
• The Telegram, intercepted by the US, instructed
  Ambassador Eckardt to propose a military alliance
  between Germany and Mexico against the United
  States.
• Mexico was to receive material aid in the
  reclamation of territory lost during the
  Mexican-American War, specifically the American
  states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Eckardt
  was also instructed to urge Mexico to help broker
  an alliance between Germany and Japan.

29
German Escalation

• Benevolent nature of war demonstrated by
  overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II in Russia
• Helped Wilson justify intervention on side of
  democratic powers
• April 2, Congress voted to enter war

30
Wilson war speech, April 1917Grand experiment to
remake the world

• Throughout March 1917, German U-boats attacked
  and sank American ships without warning on April
  2, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of
  war. Many Americans accepted Wilson's claim that
  America had no selfish aims and that U.S.
  participation in the war would make the world
  "safe for democracy."

31

• The United States formally declared war on
  Germany on April 6, 1917, although the vote was
  far from unanimous.

32
"Over There"

• Many Americans assumed that their participation
  in the war would be limited to military and
  economic aid and were surprised to find that
  American troops would be sent to Europe.
• To field an adequate fighting force, the American
  government conscripted almost 4 million men with
  the passage of the Selective Service Act in May
  1917 women joined as navy clerks or army nurses.
• The Selective Service system combined central
  direction from Washington with local
  civilian-controlled draft boards.

33
Images of women have been used to represent the
United States since the nation was founded.
Posters used female representations to give a
feminine face to war aims. A beautiful woman
flanked by the United States flag or dressed in
"the stars and stripes" represented the
patriotism of a nation at war. This poster
depicts a beseeching woman wearing a cap that
clearly echoes the American flag. In the backdrop
is a European city with its church towers in
flames, a potent reminder to Americans safe at
home of the devastating war across the Atlantic.
34
Women's efforts were central to the nation's call
for patriotism. In the midst of the final stages
of their drive for citizenship, many women saw
themselves, if not quite as regular soldiers, as
members of a volunteer army that blanketed the
nation in support of various wartime mobilization
drives. These activities required exceptional
administrative skills, and for some leisure-class
women, this became full-time work. Given the
eagerness with which women rushed into the public
sphere to support the war, it is ironic that the
majority of these images depicted traditional
notions of womanhood. This poster features a
female form to indicate that America's honor
needed fighting men to protect it.
35

• War posters traded on images of female
  sexuality. The saucy young woman dressed in a
  military uniform in this an image created by
  well-known artist Howard Chandler Christy,
  provocatively exclaims, "I Wish I Were a Man."
  What does this image suggest about modern notions
  of female sexuality emerging in the prewar years?
  Consider how the cross-dressed figure
  communicates the proper roles of men and women in
  wartime.

36
Hollywood joined in the government's efforts to
work up war rage against the "brutal Huns, as
Germans were often called. In a film made for the
British and French governments by America's
leading filmmaker, D. W. Griffith, a hulking
German is about to whip a defenseless farm woman
(Lillian Gish, one of the nation's favorite
stars) innocently carrying potatoes from a field.
When the film premiered in Washington, D.C., in
1918, Mrs. Woodrow Wilson wrote Griffith pleading
with him to cut or soften the violent whipping
scene. Her plea was one of the few acts coming
from the nation's capital that sought to moderate
the hate campaign.
37

• About 16,000 Native Americans served in the U.S.
  armed forces during World War I. This magazine
  cover, entitled "The Warrior's Return" offers a
  romanticized reconstruction of one homecoming.
  The young soldier, still in uniform and
  presumably fresh from France, rides his painted
  pony to the tepee of his parents, where they
  proudly welcome the brave warrior. Their tepee
  even has a star, a national symbol that families
  with sons in the military displayed on their
  homes. The painting sought to demonstrate that
  all Americans, even those on the margins of
  national life, were sufficiently assimilated and
  loyal to join the national sacrifice to defeat
  the enemy.

38

• After the triumphal parades ended, attention
  turned to the question of what the heroes would
  do at home. The Department of Labor poster tries
  to convey a strong image of purposefulness and
  prosperity by portraying a soldier in front of a
  booming industrial landscape. The U.S. Employment
  Service had little to offer veterans beyond
  posters, however, and unions were unprepared to
  cope with the massive numbers of former soldiers
  who needed retraining. As workplace conditions
  deteriorated, the largest number of strikes in
  the nation's history broke out in 1919.

39

• Before the war ended, some 25,000 American women
  made it to France, all as volunteers.
  Ex-president Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed war
  the "Great Adventure, and some women were eager
  to share in it. About half became nurses, where
  as one said, they dealt with "a sea of
  stretchers, a human carpet. Women also drove
  ambulances, acted as social workers, and ran
  canteens for the Red Cross and the YMCA. One YMCA
  worker, Mary Baldwin, hoped that a few hours in
  her canteen would "make life, and even death,
  easier out there.' A handful of female
  physicians worked as contract surgeons for the
  U.S. army. Dr. Loy McAfee wore this uniform in
  France.

40

• Nothing could make living in the trenches
  anything better than miserable, but a decent
  shave with a Gillette safety razor could offer
  temporary relief.

41

• While trenches could be dry, rains brought
  mud so deep that wounded men drowned in it. By
  the time American doughboys arrived in Europe,
  troops had faced one another for more than three
  years, burrowed into a double line of trenches,
  protected by barbed wire, machine gun nests, and
  mortars, backed by heavy artillery. A pair of dry
  boots was perhaps one of the greatest comforts a
  soldier could experience in the trench.

42

• General John J. Pershing was head of the American
  Expeditionary Force (AEF), but the new recruits
  had to be trained before being transported across
  the submarine infested Atlantic.
• The government countered the U-boats by sending
  armed convoys across the Atlantic the plan
  worked no American soldiers were killed on the
  way to Europe.
• Pershing was reluctant to put his men under
  foreign commanders thus, until May 1918, the
  French and the British still bore the brunt of
  the fighting.

43

• Their burden increased when the Eastern Front
  collapsed after the Russian Revolution in
  November 1917. Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
  the new Bolshevik regime surrendered about a
  third of Russia's territories in return for peace
  with the Central Powers.
• At the request of Allied leaders, Pershing
  committed about 60,000 Americans to help the
  French repel the Germans in the battles of
  Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood.

44

• American and Allied forces brought the .German
  offensive to a halt in mid-July by mid-September
  1918, American and French troops had forced the
  Germans to retreat.
• An intense campaign in the Argonne forest
  eventually broke the German defenses, at the cost
  of over 26,000 American lives.

45
American Fighting Force

• Impact of American entry
• U.S. troops separate from Allied forces
• American Expeditionary Force
• John J. Pershing
• Eased pressure on British and French on Western
  front

46

• Wilsons Fourteen Points, January 1918
• To encounter effect of secret Allied treaties
• Demonstrated that war was being fought for just
  purposes
• Germany launched huge offensives in March and
  April of 1918
• War ended in November 1918

47
The American Fighting Force

• The United States lost 53,000 American servicemen
  in the fighting, and another 63,000 died from
  other causes the Allies and Central Powers lost
  8 million soldiers.
• The ethnic diversity of the American military
  worried some observers, but most optimistically
  predicted that service in the armed forces would
  promote the Americanization of immigrants.
• The Americanization of the army was imperfect at
  best African Americans were in segregated units
  under the control of white officers and were
  assigned to the most menial tasks.

48

• Racial violence erupted at several camps. The
  worst incident occurred in Houston in August
  1917, when 15 white soldiers were killed by black
  soldiers in retaliation for a string of racial
  incidents.
• A group of former AEF soldiers formed the first
  American Legion in 1919 in order to preserve the
  "memories and incidents" of their association in
  the Great War. War on the Home Front

49

• War on the Home Front
• Mobilizing Industry and the Economy
• Mobilizing American Workers
• Wartime Reform Woman Suffrage and Prohibition
• Promoting National Unity

50
Mobilizing Industry and the Economy

• The cost of the war to America eventually reached
  33 billion. The government paid for the war by
  enacting the War Revenue Bills of 1917 and 1918,
  and by collecting excess-profits taxes from
  corporations.
• The central agency for coordinating wartime
  production, the War Industries Board (WIB) under
  Bernard Baruch, epitomized an unparalleled
  expansion of the federal government's powers.

51

• Despite higher taxes, corporate profits soared,
  aided by an economic boom and the institution of
  price guarantees for war work.
• To ease a fuel shortage in the winter of
  1917-1918, the Fuel Administration ordered the
  temporary closing of factories, and the Railroad
  War Board took temporary control of the railroads
  when traffic slowed troop movement.
• The Food Administration encouraged farmers to
  expand production and encouraged housewives to
  conserve food at no time was it necessary for
  the government to contemplate domestic food
  rationing.

52

• Herbert Hoover headed the Food Administration
  during World War I. Sober and tireless, he led
  remarkably successful "Hooverizing campaigns for
  "meatless Mondays and "wheatless Wednesdays and
  other means of conserving resources. Guaranteed
  high prices, the American heartland not only
  supplied the needs of U.S. citizens and armed
  forces but also became the breadbasket of
  America's allies.

53
Even as posters encouraged women to participate
in war activities by buying Liberty Bonds,
supporting the Red Cross, knitting socks for
soldiers, or conserving food, the images rarely
challenged traditional ideas of women's proper
place. This is a recruitment poster for the Land
Army, a voluntary organization formed to mobilize
women as temporary farmworkers. Notice how it
links labor on the home front to the war.
54

• American officials were adamant that all sectors
  of the population be reached by the propaganda
  campaigns that urged Americans to buybonds,
  conserve food, enlist, and support the war effor
  in countless other ways. They targeted immigrants
  with posters such as this one for Liberty Bonds
  in the hopes no only that the foreign-born would
  buy bonds, but in doing so they would become more
  Americanized and more deeply committed to their
  adopted home.

55

• With the signing of the armistice in 1918, the
  WIB was disbanded most Americans could tolerate
  government planning power during an emergency but
  not permanently.
• The United States' participation in the war
  lasted just eighteen months, but it left an
  enduring legacy the modern bureaucratic state.

56
Mobilizing American Workers

• The National War Labor Board (NWLB) and acute
  labor shortages helped to improve labor's
  position with eight-hour days, time-and-a-half
  pay for overtime, and the endorsement of equal
  pay for women.
• During the war emergency, northern factories
  actively recruited African Americans, spawning
  the "Great Migration" from the South. More than
  400,000 African Americans from the South moved to
  northern industrial cities, where despite
  discrimination, they found new opportunities and
  an escape from the repressive southern
  agricultural system.

57

• On occasion, war posters acknowledged
  women who crossed conventional gender barriers
  when they took jobs in war work. These images
  were usually issued by the Young Women's
  Christian Association (YWCA), which produced its
  own posters. During the war, the YWCA continued
  its prewar activism on behalf of young working
  women and distributed the poster depicted here as
  part of its fund-raising campaign. In keeping
  with YWCA literature that praised women factory
  workers' vital contribution to defense, this
  image emphasizes female strength and solidarity.
  Note too the graphic style of this image.

58

• Women took on new jobs during the war, working as
  mail carriers, polic officers, drill-press
  operators, and farm laborers attached to the
  Women's Land Army. These women are riveters at
  the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Washington. Black
  women in particular, who customarily were limited
  to employment as domestic servants or
  agricultural laborers, found that the war opened
  up new opportunities and better wages in
  industry. When the war ended, black and white
  women alike usually lost jobs deemed to be men's
  work

59

• Wartime labor shortages prompted many Mexican
  Americans to leave farm labor for industrial jobs
  in southwestern cities. At least 100,000 Mexicans
  entered the United States between 1917 and 1920,
  often settling in segregated neighborhoods
  (barrios) in urban areas, meeting discrimination
  similar to that faced by African Americans.
• 4. About I million women joined the labor force
  for the first time, and many of the 8 miUion
  already working switched from low-paying fields
  to higher-paying industrial work.

60
Wartime Constitutionalism Woman Suffrage and
Prohibition

• Members of the National American Woman Suffrage
  Association (NA WSA) felt that women's patriotic
  service could advance the cause of woman suffrage.

61

• Members of the National Woman's Party (NWP) were
  arrested and jailed for picketing the White
  House they became martyrs through their hunger
  strike and drew attention to the issue of woman
  suffrage.
• In January 1918, Wilson withdrew his opposition
  to a federal woman suffrage amendment. The
  amendment quickly passed the House but took
  eighteen months to get through the Senate,
  followed by another year of hard work for
  ratification by the states. On August 26, 1920,
  the goal of woman suffrage was finally achieved
  with the Nineteenth Amendment.

62

• Throughout the mobilization period, advocates
  pushed for social reforms enacting a federal
  wartime family assistance program for dependents
  of servicemen, launching a campaign against
  sexually transmitted diseases, and lobbying for
  the prohibition of alcohol.

63

• Prohibition met with resistance in the cities
  because alcoholic beverages played an important
  role in the social life of certain ethnic
  cultures.
• Many states already had Prohibition laws, but
  World War I offered the impetus for national
  action, as beer drinking became unpatriotic in
  many people's minds.
• In December 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth
  Amendment prohibiting the "manufacture, sale, or
  transportation of intoxicating liquors." Ratified
  in 1919 and made effective on January 16,1920,
  the Eighteenth Amendment demonstrated the
  widening influence of the state in matters of
  personal behavior.

64
Prohibition

• Prohibition only drives drunkenness behind doors
  and into dark places, and does not cure or even
  diminish it.
• MARK TWAIN

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• This image shows the suffrage militants of
  the National Woman's Party picketing the White
  House during World War I. College graduates, they
  identified themselves by their alma maters.
  Though criticized by more moderate suffragists,
  these radical suffragists sought to embarrass
  President Wilson by graphically pointing out the
  hypocrisy of a war fought for democracy while
  women at home were not enfranchised.

67

• The Anti-Saloon League of America saw conquering
  the alcohol problem as more than an American
  crusade. In 1916 at the convention of the ASL in
  Indianapolis Ernest Cherrington presented an
  address to the convention titled "The World
  Movement Toward Prohibition of the Liquor
  Traffic."

68

• No beer, no vodka, no rum, no fun. Prohibition in
  the 1920s was nation wide when the 18th
  Amendment went into affect. On January 16, 1920
  the United States officially had a ban on the
  sale, consumption, and creation of all alcoholic
  beverages.

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Promoting National Unity

• Formed in 1917, the Committee on Public
  Information (CPI) promoted public support for the
  war and acted as a nationalizing force by
  promoting the development of a national ideology.
• During the war, the CPI touched the lives of
  practically every American, and in its zeal, it
  often used inflammatory stories.

71
Promoting National Unity

• Committee on Public Information headed by George
  Creel

72

• Many Americans found themselves targets of
  suspicion as self-appointed agents of the
  American Protective League spied on neighbors and
  coworkers.
• The CPI encouraged ethnic groups to give up their
  Old World customs in the spirit of "One Hundred
  Percent Americanism," an insistence on conformity
  and an intolerance of dissent. German Americans
  bore the brunt of this campaign owing to the
  hostility generated by propaganda about German
  militarism and outrages.

73

• Law enforcement officials tolerated little
  criticism of established values and institutions
  legal tools for curbing dissent included the
  Espionage Act of 1917, which imposed stiff
  penalties for antiwar activities, and the
  Sedition Act of 1918, which focused on disloyal
  speech, writing, and behavior.
• The acts, which defined treason and sedition
  loosely, led to the conviction of more than one
  thousand people and focused particularly on
  socialists and radical groups such as the IWW
  (the Wobblies).
• Courts rarely resisted wartime legal excesses. In
  Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court
  upheld limits on freedom of speech that would not
  have been acceptable in peacetime.

74
An Unsettled Peace 1919-1920

• Treaty of Versailles
• Racial Strife

75
Treaty of Versailles

• 14 Points
• Georges Clemenceau stated Moses only had to have
  10 Commandments Wilson has to have 14

76

• The Allies accepted Wilson's Fourteen Points as
  the basis for the peace negotiations for the
  Treaty of Versailles that began in January 1919.
• Wilson called for open diplomacy, freedom of
  navigation upon the seas, arms reduction, the
  removal of trade barriers, and national
  self-determination.
• Essential to Wilson's vision was the creation of
  a multinational organization "for the purpose of
  affording mutual guarantees of political
  independence and territorial integrity to great
  and small States alike." The League of Nations
  became Wilson's obsession.

77

• The Fourteen Points were imbued with the spirit
  of progressivism, but the lofty goals and ideals
  for world reformation proved too far reaching to
  be practical or attainable.
• According to Article X of the peace treaty, the
  League of Nations would curb aggressor countries
  through collective military action.
• Representatives from twenty-seven countries
  attended the peace conference in Versailles, but
  representatives from Germany and Russia were
  excluded.

78

• France, Italy, and Great Britain wanted to punish
  Germany and treat themselves to the spoils of war
  by demanding heavy reparations they had also
  made secret agreements to divide up the German
  colonies.
• National self-determination bore fruit in the
  creation of the independent states of Austria,
  Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia.

79

• The creation of the new nations of Finland,
  Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia upheld the
  principle of self-determination, while also
  isolating Soviet Russia from the rest of Europe.
• Wilson won only limited concessions regarding the
  colonial empires. The Central Powers' colonial
  empires in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East were
  dismantled, but instead of becoming independent
  countries, the colonies were assigned to
  victorious Allied nations to administer as
  mandates.
• Certain topics, such as freedom of the seas and
  free trade, never even appeared on the agenda
  because of Allied resistance.

80

• Wilson had only partial success in scaling back
  French and British demands for reparations from
  Germany, which eventually were set at 33
  billion.
• Wilson consoled himself with the negotiators'
  commitment to his proposed League of Nations. He
  acknowledged that the peace treaty had defects
  but expressed confidence that they could be
  resolved by a permanent international
  organization dedicated to the peaceful resolution
  of disputes.
• A peace treaty was signed in Versailles on June
  28,1919, but when Wilson presented the treaty to
  the U.S. Senate, it did not receive the necessary
  wo-thirds vote for ratification.

81

• Progressive senators felt that the treaty was too
  conservative, "irreconcilables" disapproved of
  permanent U.S. participation in European affairs,
  and Republicans wanted to amend Article X because
  they thought it would restrict Congress's
  constitutional authority to declare war and would
  limit the freedom of the United States to pursue
  a unilateral foreign policy.
• In September of 1919, Wilson went on a speaking
  tour to defend the treaty, but the tour was cut
  short when he collapsed a week later he suffered
  a severe stroke.

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• Wilson remained inflexible in his refusal to
  compromise, but the treaty was not ratified when
  it came up for a vote in the Senate in 1919 and
  again in 1920.
• The United States never ratified the Versailles
  treaty or joined the League of Nations. Many
  wartime issues were only partially resolved some
  unresolved problems played a major role in the
  coming of World War II.

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Racial Strife, Labor Unrest, and the Red Scare

• .

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• Many African Americans emerged from the war
  determined to stand up for their rights.
• Blacks who had migrated to the North and blacks
  who had served in the war had high expectations
  that exacerbated white racism lynching nearly
  doubled in the South, and race riots broke out in
  the North.
• A variety of tensions were present in northern
  cities where violence erupted black voters
  determined the winners of close elections, and
  blacks competed with whites for jobs and housing.

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• Workers of all races had hopes for a better life,
  but after the war employers resumed attacks on
  union activity, and rapidly rising inflation
  threatened to wipe out wage increases.
• As a result of workers' determination and
  employers' resistance, one in every five workers
  went on strike in 1919 strikes were held by
  steelworkers, shipyard workers in Seattle, and
  policemen in Boston.
• Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts fired
  the entire Boston police force, and that strike
  failed Coolidge was rewarded with the Republican
  vice presidential nomination in 1920.

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• A crucial factor in organized labor's failure to
  win many of its strikes in the post-War period
  was the pervasive fear of radicalism in America,
  which coincided with a longstanding anxiety
  about unassimilated immigrants, an anxiety that
  had been made worse by the war.
• The Russian Revolution ofl917 so alarmed the
  Allies that Wilson sent several thousand troops
  to Russia in hopes of weakening the Bolshevik
  regime.
• American fears of Communism were deepened as the
  labor unrest coincided with the founding of the
  Bolsheviks' Third International (or Comintern) to
  export Communist doctrine and revolution to the
  rest of the world.

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• Ironically, as public concern about domestic
  Bolshevism increased, the U.S. Communist Party
  and the Communist Labor Party were rapidly losing
  members and political power.
• II. Tensions mounted with a series of bombings in
  the early spring of 1919 in November, Attorney
  General A. Mitchell Palmer staged the first of
  what were known as "Palmer raids," in which
  federal agents stormed the headquarters of
  radical organizations

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Mitchell Palmer
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• Lacking the protection of U.S. citizenship,
  thousands of aliens who had committed no crime
  but were suspect because of their anarchist or
  revolutionary beliefs or their immigrant
  backgrounds faced deportation without formal
  trial or indictment.
• Palmer predicted that a conspiracy attempt to
  overthrow the government would occur on May Day
  in 1920 when the incident never occurred, the
  hysteria of the Red Scare began to abate.

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• At the height of the Red Scare, Nicola Sacco and
  Bartolomeo Vanzetti-alien draft evaders-were
  arrested for robbery and murder, were denied a
  new trial even though evidence surfaced that
  suggested their innocence, and were executed in
  1927.

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• The war left racial, ethnic, and class tensions
  in its wake. With few casualties and no physical
  destruction at home, the positive legacy was that
  America emerged from the war stronger than ever-a
  major international power economically and
  politically.

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• The End