Chapter 12: Environmental Ethics

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Chapter 12Environmental Ethics
By Melissa Gholamnejad, M.A. Philosophy,
Claremont Graduate University
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The Tension

• Conservation efforts usually come into tension
  with human development efforts. Human habitats
  clash with natural habitats.
• Conservation, tourism tensions between economic
  growth and moral and aesthetic sensitivity.

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Some Questions to Consider

• What wins outa nonhuman species or human
  economic growth?
• Do other species even have rights?
• If so, rights in what sense? Moral rights?
• Who/what belongs to the moral community?
• Are other species members of a moral community?
• What enables something to possess moral rights?

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Moral Community

• In the past our definition of moral community has
  been (specially in the west) anthropocentric.
• A moral community included human beings only
  because by virtue of being a person posses moral
  status (Platos 3- parts of the soul).

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Viewpoint of Western Philosopher

• Humans are naturally superior to all other
  species by virtue of the capacity to reason.

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Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

• The most gifted student of Plato.
• Held that the source of meaning comes from
  concrete physical reality.
• A scientist who studied botany, physics, biology,
  astronomy, politics, psychology, aesthetics, and
  poetry.

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Aristotle Continued

• For Aristotle ethics originates from our
  encounter in the real world and with each other,
  the world of experience.
• Relationship is a key, for individual does not
  exist alone as a private, independent entity.
  The individual exists in relationship with others
• Not a question of DOING the right thing, but
  BEING A GOOD PERSON.

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Aristotle Continued

• Humans by nature are RATIONAL ANIMALS.
• We have a unique capacity to reason, to be
  rational.
• We realize our true nature as rational animals,
  when we properly exercise our reason throughout
  our lives.
• How about animals that are capable of some degree
  of thinking, like the chimpanzee.

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Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

• A philosopher and theologian.
• His interpretation of natural law became the
  authority in Roman Catholic moral teaching for
  over 300 years.
• An act is right or wrong contingent upon whether
  or not that act deviates from what is viewed as
  natural.
• Following the natural law is following the will
  of God.

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Aquinas Continued

• Use of natural law distinguishes us from animals
  in our capacity to discern this universal purpose
  (innate purpose to nature), this law, through the
  gift of reason.
• We possess an inherent moral sense of what is
  right and wrong.
• While non-rational being part in natural law is
  that their will is determined by Gods.
• Capacity to reason indicates that humans are
  created in the image of their creator God.
  Nonhuman animals, lack this capacity and are
  justifiably subjected to humans for human use.

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Group of Philosophers called RATIONALIST

• Socrates, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant
• Hold that at least some important truths, such as
  the existence of God, the immortality of the
  soul, the truth about what we ought to do, are
  either self-evident or can be deductively proved.

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Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

• First modern philosopher, famous for making the
  connection between geometry and algebra. Father
  of analytic geometry.
• Meditation on First Philosophy published in 1641,
  which provided a philosophical ground work for
  the possibility of the sciences.

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Descartes Continued

• Began writing Meditations in 1639-skeptical
  questions concerning the possibility of
  knowledge.
• First item of knowledge COGITO ERGO SUM I think
  therefore I am or I am, I exist.
• Thinking or reasoning very important in human
  life. Since nonhuman animals and other species
  lack this faculty, humans are necessarily
  superior.
• Only humans have minds, thus, animals cannot feel
  pain.

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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

• Divided philosophy into 3 parts
• Logic Which applies to all thought
• Physics which deals with the way the world is.
• Ethics which deals with what we ought to do.

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Kant Continued

• Claimed that because humans are superior (in
  regards to being rational), they can justifiably
  use animals as a means to humans own ends. That
  is we have no DIRECT duties toward animals.
• However, we do have INDIRECT duties to treat
  animals with respect and this indirect duty
  strictly prohibits us from treating animals
  cruelly.
• CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE our actions should be
  derivable from universal principles when we act,
  we are to ask whether the reasons which we
  propose to act could be made universal.

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Cannot Continue

• We cannot continue in this anthropocentric way
  because our resources have become scarce.
• We need change in worldview.
• Thus environmental concerns compel us to
  reexamine our traditional views regarding what
  constitutes the moral community, and whose
  interest have priority over other species.

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Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

• Born in London, he was the earliest proponents of
  animal rights.
• Advocacy of utilitarianism of animal rights and
  his opposition to the ideas of natural law and
  natural rights.
• Goal in life was to create a complete utilitarian
  code of law.
• Utilitarianism notion that the right act or
  policy is that which cause the greatest good for
  the greatest number of peoplethe greatest
  happiness principle

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Bentham Continued

• His principle of utility good as that which
  produces the greatest amount of pleasure, and the
  minimum amount of pain and evil as that which
  produces the most pain without pleasure (both
  physical and spiritual).
• If reason alone was the criterion by which we
  judge who ought to have rights, human infants and
  adults of certain form of disability fall short
  too.

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Peter Singer

• Published in 1975 Animal Liberation
• Published in 1979 Practical Ethics, his most
  comprehensive work.
• Professor of bioethics at Princeton University.
• He was influenced by Kant.
• He is a utilitarian.

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Singer Continued

• His ethical conduct is justifiable by reason that
  go beyond to something bigger than the
  individual addressing a large audience.
• The capacity for pleasure and pain, or simple
  sensation, is a viable criterion for moral
  status.
• For Singer all creatures who have the capacity
  for sensation are part of the moral community.

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Carl Becker (Buddhist)

• Holds the position that we cannot maintain this
  attitude (whatever benefits there are in our
  environment, they exist for us) because our
  resources have become distressingly scarce. The
  only way to resolve this crisis is which human
  need far outstrip natural resources would be a
  complete change in our worldview.

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Becker Continued

• For Becker this is where Buddhist Philosophy,
  particularly in teaching regarding the
  interconnectedness of all things, is invaluable.
  
• Reminds us that other living entities are
  stakeholders in the decisions we make with
  respect to the environment.

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Joel Feinberg (1926-2004)

• Feinberg seeks to refute the philosophical theory
  of psychological egoism in his 1958 paper
• Psychological egoismthe view that humans are
  always motivated by self-interest, even in what
  seems to be acts of altruism. Example of Kant.
• Argues having some sense of self-awareness
  entitles one to moral status and respect.
• If so, this would exclude plant species and the
  like from membership into the moral community

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Mark Sagoff

• Argues that this emphasis upon respecting
  individual living beings essentially conflicts
  with promoting the interest of the ecosystem.
• If we do extend our moral concern into a bigger
  ecological picture, incorporating ecosystem, one
  lesson we can learn from ecology and the study of
  ecosystem is that nothing acts in isolation.
• All things are interdependent.

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Conclusion

• In order to have sustainability it demands a
  vision of moral responsibility regarding the
  future of our planet.

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Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

• By Mark Sagoff pages 418-427 of our text.
• Discusses The Land Ethic written by Aldo
  Leopold. Which states that enlarge the
  boundaries of the community to include soils,
  waters, plants, and animals, or collectively, the
  land.

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Views to Consider

• Christopher Stone and Laurence Tribe state that
  we should expand our moral community to include
  not only human beings but soil, water, plants,
  and animals.
• Stone suggests that animals as well as trees be
  given legal standing so that their interest can
  be represented in court.
• Peter Singer states that
• A) animals capacity to suffer pain or enjoy
  pleasure or happiness places people under moral
  obligation.
• B) only a being that can experience pain and
  pleasure can have an interest
• Singer does not include rocks, trees, lakes,
  rivers, or mountains in the moral community.
• His thesis stats that not necessary for animals
  to have rights which we are to respect rather
  animals have utilities (useful) that ought to be
  treated on an equal basis with those of human
  beings.

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What Is Our Moral Obligation To Animals?

• Is the moral obligation to animals to their
  well-being or to their rights
• 1) Duties to nonhuman animals may be based on the
  principle that cruelty to animals is bad
• 2) Human beings are to prevent and to relieve
  animal suffering however it is caused, whether in
  the farm or in the wild (a stronger claim).

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Singer Vs. Leopold

• Singers thesis society has an obligation to
  prevent the killing of animals and even relieve
  their suffering wherever, however, and as much as
  it is able, at a reasonable cost to itself.

• Ecological system is beautiful and demands
  respect but not on humanitarian grounds.

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Singer Vs. Leopold

• Deplore suffering of domestic animals
• Concerned with welfare of individual animals,
  without special regard to their status as
  endangered species
• Aversion to hunting
• Not environmentalist

• Indifference to the matter of suffering of
  domestic animals
• Urgent concern about disappearance of species
• Top predators are gone hunter may serve an
  ecological function.

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Environmentalist Vs. Animal Liberation (Animal
Equality)

• Concerned with ecological issues not humanitarian
  issues
• Acting for the sake of individual animals
• Maintain the diversity, integrity, beauty and
  authenticity of the natural environment
• Allow hunters to shoot animals whose populations
  exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat.
• Population biology not animal equality
• Would sacrifice the lives of individual creatures
  to preserve the authenticity, integrity and
  complexity of ecological systems.

• Suffering of animals their primary concern
• Singer Moral obligation to animals are justified
  because they are in distress and human ability to
  relieve the stress
• Require society to relieve animal suffering
  wherever it can and at a lesser cost to itself,
  domestic or wild.
• Of course if suffering of animals creates human
  obligation, then should we stop a cat from
  killing a mouse.
• Henry Shue if we give animals equal rights as
  humans, then we cannot allow animals to be killed
  for food.
• Sacrifice authenticity, integrity and complexity
  of ecosystem to protect the rights, or guard
  lives of animals