Title: Chapter%202:%20The%20Copernican%20Revolution%20The%20Birth%20of%20Modern%20Science
1Chapter 2 The Copernican RevolutionThe Birth of
Modern Science
- Ancient Astronomy
- Models of the Solar System
- Laws of Planetary Motion
- Newtons Laws
- Laws of Motion
- Law of Gravitation
2Scientific Method
Form theory
Test theory
3Astronomy in Ancient Times
- Ancient people had a better, clearer chance to
study the sky and see the patterns of stars
(constellations) than we do today. - Drew pictures of constellations
created stories to account for the figures being
in the sky. - Used stars and constellations for navigation.
- Noticed changes in Moons shape and position
against the stars. - Created accurate calendars of seasons.
4Ancient Astronomy
- Stonehenge on the summer solstice.
- As seen from the center of the stone circle,
- the Sun rises directly over the "heel stone" on
the longest day of the year.
The Big Horn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming, built by
the Plains Indians. Its spokes and rock piles
are aligned with the rising and setting of the
Sun and other stars.
5Astronomy in Early Americas
- Maya Indians developed written language and
number system. - Recorded motions of Sun, Moon, and planets --
especially Venus. - Fragments of astronomical observations recorded
in picture books made of tree bark show that
Mayans had learned to predict solar and lunar
eclipses and the path of Venus. - One Mayan calendar more accurate than those of
Spanish.
6Ancient Contributions to Astronomy
- Egyptians
- recorded interval of floods on Nile
- every 365 days
- noted Sirius rose with Sun when floods due
- invented sundials to measure time of day from
movement of the Sun. - Babylonians
- first people to make detailed records of
movements of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn - only planets visible until telescope
7Greek Astronomy
- Probably based on knowledge from Babylonians.
- Thales predicted eclipse of Sun that occurred in
585 B.C. - Around 550 B.C., Pythagoras noted that the
Evening Star and Morning Star were really the
same body (actually planet Venus). - Some Greek astronomers thought the Earth might be
in the shape of a ball and that moonlight was
really reflected sunlight.
8Time Line
- Ancient Greeks
- Pythagoras 6th century B.C.
- Aristotle 348-322 B.C.
- Aristarchus 310-230 B.C.
- Hipparchus 130 B.C.
- Ptolemy A.D. 140
9Pythagorean Paradigm
- The Pythagorean Paradigm had three key points
about the movements of celestial objects - the planets, Sun, Moon and stars move in
perfectly circular orbits - the speed of the planets, Sun, Moon and stars in
the circular orbits is perfectly uniform - the Earth is at the exact center of the motion of
the celestial bodies.
10Aristotles UniverseA Geocentric Model
- Aristotle proposed that
- the heavens were literally composed of
concentric, crystalline spheres - to which the celestial objects were attached
- and which rotated at different velocities,
- with the Earth at the center (geocentric).
The figure illustrates the ordering of the
spheres to which the Sun, Moon, and visible
planets were attached.
11Planetary Motion
- From Earth, planets appear to move wrt fixed
stars and vary greatly in brightness. - Most of the time, planets undergo direct motion -
moving W to E relative to background stars.
- Occasionally, they change direction and
temporarily undergo retrograde motion - motion
from E to W -before looping back.
(retrograde-move)
12Planetary Motion Epicycles and
Deferents
- Retrograde motion was first explained as follows
- the planets were attached, not to the concentric
spheres themselves, but to circles attached to
the concentric spheres, as illustrated in the
adjacent diagram. - These circles were called "Epicycles",and the
concentric spheres to which they were attached
were termed the "Deferents". - (epicycle-move)
13Epicycle/Deferent Modifications
- In actual models, the center of the epicycle
moved with uniform circular motion, not around
the center of the deferent, but around a point
that was displaced by some distance from the
center of the deferent.
This modification predicted planetary motions
that more closely matched the observed motions.
14Further Modifiations
- In practice, even this was not enough to account
for the detailed motion of the planets on the
celestial sphere! - In more sophisticated epicycle models further
"refinements" were introduced
In some cases, epicycles were themselves placed
on epicycles, as illustrated in the adjacent
figure. The full Ptolemaic model required 80
different circles!!
15Ptolemy
- 127-151 A.D. in Alexandria
- Accomplishments
- completion of a geocentric model of solar
system that accurately predicts motions of
planets by using combinations of regular circular
motions - invented latitude and longitude (gave
coordinates for 8000 places) - first to orient maps with NORTH at top
and EAST at right - developed magnitude system to describe brightness
of stars that is still used today
16Aristarchus
- 310-230 B.C.
- Applied geometry to find
- distance to Moon
- Directly measure angular diameter
- Calculate linear diameter using lunar eclipse
- relative distances and sizes of the Sun and Moon
- ratio of distances to Sun and Moon by observing
angle between the Sun and Moon at first or third
quarter Moon. - Proposed that the Sun is stationary and that the
Earth orbits the Sun and spins on its own axis
once a day.
17Hipparchus
- 190-125 B.C.
- Often called greatest astronomer of
antiquity. - Contributions to astronomy
- improved on Aristarchus method for calculating
the distances to the Sun and Moon, - improved determination of the length of the year,
- extensive observations and theories of motions of
the Sun and Moon, - earliest systematic catalog of brighter stars ,
- first estimate of precession shift in the vernal
equinox.
18Time Line
- Ancient Greeks
- Pythagoras 6th century B.C.
- Aristotle 348-322 B.C.
- Aristarchus 310-230 B.C.
- Hipparchus 130 B.C.
- Ptolemy A.D. 140
- Dark Ages A.D. 5th - 10th century
- Arabs translated books, planets positions
- China 1054 A.D. supernova Crab Nebula
19Heliocentric Model - Copernicus
- In 1543, Copernicus proposed that the Sun,
not the Earth, is the center of the solar system.
- Such a model is called a heliocentric system.
- Ordering of planets known to Copernicus in this
new system is illustrated in the figure. - Represents modern ordering of planets.
- (copernican-move)
20Stellar Parallax
- Stars should appear to change their position with
the respect to the other background stars as the
Earth moved about its orbit. - In Copernicus day, no stellar parallax was
observed, so the Copernican model was considered
to be only a convenient calculation tool for
planetary motion. - In 1838, Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel succeeded in
measuring the parallax of the nearby, faint star
61 Cygni. ( penny at 4 miles)
21Time Line
- Ancient Greeks
Pythagoras 6th century B.C.
Aristotle 348-322
B.C. Aristarchus 310-230
B.C. Ptolemy
A.D. 140 - Dark Ages A.D. 5th - 10th century
- Renaissance Copernicus
(1473-1543) Tycho
Brahe Kepler Galileo
(1546-1601) (1571-1630)
(1564-1642) Newton
(1642-1727)
22Galileo Galilei
- Galileo used his telescope to show that Venus
went through a complete set of phases, just like
the Moon. - This observation was among the most important in
human history, for it provided the first
conclusive observational proof that was
consistent with the Copernican system but not the
Ptolemaic system.
23Galileo and Jupiter
- Galileo observed 4 points of light that changed
their positions with time around the planet
Jupiter. - He concluded that these were objects in orbit
around Jupiter. - Galileo called them the Medicea Siderea-the
Medician Stars in honor of Cosimo II de'Medici,
who had become Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1609.
24Time Line
- Ancient Greeks
Pythagoras 6th century B.C.
Aristotle 348-322
B.C. Aristarchus 310-230
B.C. Ptolemy
A.D. 140 - Dark Ages A.D. 5th - 10th century
- Renaissance Copernicus
(1473-1543) Tycho
Brahe Kepler Galileo
(1546-1601) (1571-1630)
(1564-1642) Newton
(1642-1727)
25Tycho Brahe
26Tycho Brahe
- Danish astronomer
- Studied a bright new star in sky that faded
over time. - In 1577, studied a comet
- in trying to determine its distance from Earth by
observing from different locations, noted that
there was no change in apparent position - proposed comet must be farther from Earth than
the Moon. - Built instrument to measure positions of planets
and stars to within one arc minute (1).
27Johannes KeplerLaws of Planetary Motion
28Kepler Elliptical orbits
- The amount of "flattening" of the ellipse is the
eccentricity. In the following figure the
ellipses become more eccentric from left to right.
A circle may be viewed as a special case of an
ellipse with zero eccentricity, while as the
ellipse becomes more flattened the eccentricity
approaches one.
(eccentricity-anim)
29Elliptical Orbits and Keplers Laws
- Some orbits in the Solar System cannot be
approximated at all well by circles
- for example, Plutos separation from the Sun
varies by about 50 during its orbit!
According to Keplers First Law, closed orbits
arounda central object under gravity are
ellipses.
30As a planet moves in an elliptical orbit, the Sun
is at one focus (F or F) of the ellipse.
r
C
31The line that connects the planets point of
closest approachto the Sun, the perihelion ...
As a planet moves in an elliptical orbit, the Sun
is at one focus (F or F) of the ellipse
perihelion
v
r
C
32 and its point of greatest separation from the
Sun, the aphelion
As a planet moves in an elliptical orbit, the Sun
is at one focus (F or F) of the ellipse
perihelion
is called the major axis of the ellipse.
v
r
C
aphelion
33The only other thing we need to know about
ellipses is howto identify the length of the
semi-major axis, because that determines the
period of the orbit.
Semi means half, and so the semi-major axis a
is half thelength of the major axis
v
r
C
34Keplers 1st Law
- The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with
the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
35Keplers 2nd Law
- The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times as the planet travels
around the ellipse.
Orbit-anim
36An object in a highly elliptical orbit travels
very slowlywhen it is far out in the Solar
System,
but speeds up as it passes the Sun.
37According to Keplers Second Law,
the line joining the object and the Sun ...
38 sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time.
equal areas
39That is, Keplers Second Law states that
The line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps
outequal areas in equal intervals of time.
40For circular orbits around one particular mass -
e.g. the Sun - we know that the period of the
orbit (the time for one completerevolution)
depended only on the radius r
- this is Keplers 3rd Law
M
For objects orbiting a common central body (e.g.
the Sun)in approximately circular orbits,
r
r
m
v
the orbital period squared is proportional to the
orbital radius cubed.
41Lets see what determines the period for an
elliptical orbit
For elliptical orbits,the period dependsnot on
r, but on thesemi-major axis a instead.
v
r
C
42It turns out that Keplers 3rd Law applies to
all ellipticalorbits, not just circles, if we
replace orbital radiusby semi major axis
For objects orbiting a common central body (e.g.
the Sun)
the orbital period squared is proportional to
the orbital radius cubed.
the orbital period squared is proportional to
the semi major axis cubed.
43So as all of these elliptical orbits have the
same semi-majoraxis a, so they have the same
period.
44So if each of these orbits is around the same
massiveobject (e.g. the Sun),
45So if each of these orbits is around the same
massiveobject (e.g. the Sun),
then as they all have the same semi-major axis
length a,
46So if each of these orbits is around the same
massiveobject (e.g. the Sun),
then as they all have the same semi-major axis
length a,
then, by KeplersThird Law, they have the
sameorbital period.
47Ellipses and Orbits
48Keplers 3rd Law
- The ratio of the squares of the revolution
periods (P) for two planets is equal to the ratio
of the cubes of their semi-major axes (a).
P2 a3 or P2/a3 1 where P is the
planets sidereal orbital period
(in Earth years) and a is the length of
the semi-major axis (in astronomical
units)
49Astronomical Unit
- One astronomical unit is the semi-major
axis of the Earths orbit around the Sun,
essentially the average distance between Earth
and the Sun. - abbreviation A.U.
- one A.U. 150 x 106 km
50Keplers 3rd Law for the Planets
P2 a3 or P2/a3 1
51Planetary Motions
- The planets orbits (except Mercury and Pluto)
are nearly circular. - The further a planet is from the Sun, the greater
its orbital period. - Although derived for the six innermost planets
known at the time, Keplers Laws apply to all
currently known planets. - Do Keplers laws apply to comets orbiting
the Sun? - Do they apply to the moons of Jupiter?
52Keplers Laws
- 1st Law Each planet moves around the Sun in an
orbit that is an ellipse, with the Sun at one
focus of the ellipse. - 2nd Law The straight line joining a planet and
the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time. - 3rd Law The squares of the periods of
revolution of the planets are in direct
proportion to the cubes of the semi-major axes of
their orbits.
53Whats important so far?
- Through history, people have used the scientific
method - observe and gather data,
- form theory to explain observations and predict
behavior - test theorys predictions.
- Greeks produced first surviving, recorded models
of universe - geocentric (Earth at center of universe),
- other celestial objects in circular orbits about
Earth, and - move with constant speed in those orbits.
- Geocentric models require complicated
combinations of deferents and epicycles to
explain observed motion of planets. Ptolemaic
model required 80 such combinations. - Copernicus revived heliocentric model of solar
system, but kept circular, constant speed orbits.
54Whats important so far? continued
- Without use of a telescope, Tycho Brahe made very
accurate measurements of the positions of
celestial objects. - Johannes Kepler inherited Brahes data and
determined three empirical laws governing the
motion of orbiting celestial objects. - 1st Law Each planet moves around the Sun in an
orbit that is an ellipse, with the Sun at
one focus of the ellipse. - 2nd Law The straight line joining a planet and
the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time. - 3rd Law The squares of the periods of revolution
of the planets are in direct proportion to
the cubes of the semi-major axes of their
orbits. - Galileo used a telescope to observe the Moon and
planets. The observed phases of Venus validated
the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus.
Also discovered 4 moons orbiting Jupiter,
Saturns rings, named lunar surface features,
studied sunspots, noted visible disk of planets
(stars - point sources).
55Why do the planets move according to Keplers
laws? Or, more generally, why do objects move as
they do?
56Historical Views of Motion
- Aristotle two types of motion
- natural motion
- violent motion
- Galileo
- discredited Aristotelian view of motion
Animations Air resistance Free-fall
57Galileo Why do objects move as they do?
speed increases.
speed decreases.
does speed change?
Without friction, NO, the speed is constant!
58What is a natural state of motion for an
object?
Moving with constant velocity?
At rest?
59Inertia and Mass
Inertia a bodys resistance to
a change in its motion.
Mass a measure of an
objects inertia or, loosely, a measure of
the total amount of matter contained within an
object.
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61Newtons First Law
- Called the law of inertia.
- Since time of Aristotle, it was assumed that a
body required some continual action on it to
remain in motion, unless that motion were a part
of natural motion of object. - Newtons first law simplifies concept of motion.
62Animation collision-1st-law
63FORCES and MOTION
- An object will remain
- (a) at rest or
- (b) moving in a straight line at constant speed
until - (c) some net external force acts on it.
64What if there is an outside influence?
- To answer this question, Newton invoked
the concept of a FORCE acting on a body to cause
a change in the motion of the body.
65Forces can act
through contact
instantaneously (baseball bat
making contact with the baseball),
or at a distance.
or continuously (gravity
keeping the baseball from flying into space).
66Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity describes the change in
position of a body divided by the time interval
over which that change occurs.
Velocity is a vector quantity, requiring
both the speed of the body and its direction.
Acceleration The rate of change of
the velocity of a body, any change in
the bodys velocity speeding up, slowing down,
changing direction.
Animation circularmotion
67Newtons Second Law F ma
- Relates
- net external force F applied to object of
mass m - to resulting change in motion of object,
acceleration a.
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69If there is a NET FORCE on an object,how much
will the object accelerate?
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71Newton and Gravitation
- Newtons three laws of motion enable calculation
of the acceleration of a body and its motion,
BUT must first calculate the forces. - Celestial bodies do not touch ------ do not
exert forces on each other directly. - Newton proposed that celestial bodies exert an
attractive force on each other at a distance,
across empty space. - He called this force gravitation.
72- Isaac Newton discovered that two bodies share a
gravitational attraction, where the force of
attraction depends on both their masses
73- Both bodies feel the same force, but in opposite
directions.
74This is worth thinking about - for example, drop
a pen to the floor. Newtons laws say that the
force with which the pen is attracting the Earth
is equal and opposite to the force with which
the Earth is attracting the pen, even though the
pen is much lighter than the Earth!
75- Newton also worked out that if you keep the
masses of the two bodies constant, the force of
gravitational attraction depends on the distance
between their centers
mutual force of attraction
76- For any two particular masses, the gravitational
force between them depends on their separation
as
as the separation between the masses is
increased, the gravitational force of
attractionbetween them decreases quickly.
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79Gravity and Weight
- The weight of an object is a measure of the
gravitational force the object feels in the
presence of another object. - For example on Earth, two objects with different
masses will have different weights. - Fg m(GmEarth/rEarth2) mg
- What is the weight of the Earth on us?
80Mass and Weight
- Mass A measure of the total
amount of matter contained within an object
a measure of an objects
inertia. - Weight The force due to gravity
on an object. - Weight and mass are proportional.
- Fg mg where m
mass of the object and g acceleration
of gravity acting on the object
81Free Fall
- If the only force acting on an object is force of
gravity (weight), object is said to be in a state
of free fall. - A heavier body is attracted to the Earth with
more force than a light body. - Does the heavier object free fall faster?
- NO, the acceleration of the body depends on both
- the force applied to it and
- the mass of the object, resisting the motion.
- g F/m F/m
82Newtons Law of Gravitation
- We call the force which keeps the Moon in its
orbit around the Earth gravity.
Sir Isaac Newtons conceptual leap in
understandingof the effects of gravity largely
involved his realizationthat the same force
governs the motion of a falling objecton Earth -
for example, an apple - and the motion of the
Moon in its orbit around the Earth.
83- Your pen dropping to the floor and a satellite in
orbit around the Earth have something in common -
they are both in freefall.
84Planets, Apples, and the Moon
- Some type of force must act on planet otherwise
it would move in a straight line. - Newton analyzed Keplers 2nd Law and saw that the
Sun was the source of this force. - From Keplers 3rd Law, Newton deduced that the
force varied as 1/r2. - The force must act through a distance, and
Newton knew of such a force - the one that
makes an apple accelerate downward from the tree
to the Earth as the apple falls. - Could this force extend all the way to the Moon?
85To see this, lets review Newtons thought
experiment Is it possible to throw an object
into orbit around the Earth?
86On all these trajectories,the projectile is in
free fall under gravity.(If it were not, it
would travel in a straight line - thats
NewtonsFirst Law of Motion.)
87If the ball is not given enough sideways
velocity, its trajectory intercepts the Earth
...
that is, it falls to Earth eventually.
88On the trajectories which make complete orbits,
the projectile is travelling sideways fast
enough ...
On all these trajectories, the projectile is in
free fall.
On all these trajectories, the projectile is in
free fall.
89 that as it falls, the Earth curves away
underneathit, and the projectile completes
entire orbits without ever hitting the Earth.
On all these trajectories, the projectile is in
free fall.
90Gravity and Orbits
- The Suns inward pull of gravity on the planet
competes with the planets tendency to continue
moving in a straight line.
91Apparent Weightlessness in Orbit
This astronaut on a space walk is alsoin free
fall.
The astronauts sideways velocityis
sufficient to keephim or her in orbitaround the
Earth.
92Lets take a little time to answer the following
question
- Why do astronauts in the Space Shuttle in Earth
orbit feel weightless?
93- Some common misconceptions which become apparent
in answers to this question are
(a) there is no gravity in space, (b) there is no
gravity outside the Earths atmosphere, or (c) at
the Shuttles altitude, the force of gravity is
very small.
94In spacecraft (like the Shuttle) in Earth orbit,
astronauts are in free fall, at the same rate as
their spaceships.
On all these trajectories, the projectile is in
free fall.
That is why they experience weightlessness just
as a platform diver feels while diving down
towards a pool, or a sky diver feels while in
free fall.
95Newtons Form of Keplers 3rd Law
- Newton generalized Keplers 3rd Law to include
sum of masses of the two objects in orbit about
each other (in terms of the mass of the Sun). - (M1 M2) P2 a3
- Observe orbital period and separation of a
planets satellite, can compute the mass of the
planet. - Observe size of a double stars orbit and its
orbital period, deduce the masses of stars in
binary system. - Planet and Sun orbit the common center of mass of
the two bodies. - The Sun is not in precise center of orbit.
96Mass of Planets, Stars, and Galaxies
- By combining Newtons Laws of Motion and
Gravitation Law, the masses of
astronomical objects can be calculated. - a v2/r , for circular orbit of radius r
- F ma mv2/r
- mv2/r Fg GMm/ r2
- v (GM/r)1/2
- P 2?r/v 2? (r3/GM)1/2
- M rv2/G
- If the distance to an object and the orbital
period of the object are known, the mass can be
calculated.